Concept of Variance, Partitioning of variance, Source of error variance. Control techniques

 Concept of Variance, Partitioning of variance, Source of error variance. Control techniques

Research in common parlance referred to as search for knowledge. It can also be defined as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific information. Redman and Mory defines research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”Some people consider research as a movement from the known to the unknown. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggesting solution; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.

Every science has goals. In physics, the goals are concerned with learning how the

physical world works. In astronomy, the goals are to chart the universe and understand both

how it came to be and what it is becoming.

 The goals of psychologist conducting basic research are to describe, explain, predict

and control behavior.

 Description: What is Happening?

 Explanation: Why is it Happening?

 Prediction: When Will it Happen Again?

 Control: How can it be Changed?

RESEARCH DESIGN

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. The plan is the overall scheme or the program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis of data. Structure of the research is outline of the research design, and the scheme is the paradigm of operation of the variable. Strategy includes the methods to be used to gather and analyze the data. In other words, strategy implies how the research objective will be reached and how the problems encountered in the research will be tackled. (Kerlinger, 2007)

 A traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan as to how a research study is to be completed. That is, how it would operationalise variables so that they can be measured, how to select a sample of interest to the research topic, how to collect data to be used as a basis for testing hypothesis, and how to analyze the results. (Thyer, 1993)

FUNCTION OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

The function of a research design is:

 To provide answer to research question and 

 To enable the researcher to answer question as validly, accurately and as economically as possible.

CONCEPT OF VARIANCE

Variance is a measure of the dispersion or spread of a set of scores. It describes the extent to which the scores differ from each other. Variance and variation, though used by synonymously, are not identical terms. Variation is a more general term which includes variance as one of the statistical methods of representing methods. The main technical function of research design is to control variance. Research design is a set of instructions to the investigator together analyze data in certain ways. Therefore, research design acts as control mechanism and enables the researcher to control unwanted variances. Variance control is a central theme of research design.

PARTITIONING OF VARIANCE

The researcher is directly concerned with three types of variance namely experimental variance, extraneous variance and error variance. Main functions of research design are to maximize the effect of systematic variance, control extraneous variance and minimize error variance. A discussion of these variances is presented below.

SYSTEMATIC VARIANCE: By constructing an efficient research design the investigator attempts to maximize the variance of the variable of substantive research hypotheses. Systematic variance is the variability in the dependent measure due to the manipulation of the experimental variable by the experimenter. An important task of the experimenter is to maximize this variance. This objective is achieved by making the level of the experimental variable as unlike as possible. Suppose an experimenter is interested in studying the effect of intensity of light on visual acuity. The experimenter decides to study the effect by manipulating three levels of light intensity, i.e. 10ml, 15ml, 20ml. as the differences between any two levels of the experimental variable is not substantial, and there is little chance of separating its effect from the total variance. Thus, in order to maximize systematic variances, it is desirable to make the experimental conditions (levels) as different as possible. In this experiment it would be appropriate, then to modify the levels of light intensity to 10ml, 20ml, 30ml so that the difference between any two levels is substantial.

EXTRANEOUS VARIANCE

Extraneous variance is produced by the extraneous variables or the relevant variables. An experimenter always tries to control the relevant variables and thus, also wants to eliminate the variances produced by these variables. For elimination of extraneous variance it is essential that the extraneous variables be properly controlled. There are four ways to control the extraneous variances.

1. Randomization: It is considered to be the most effective way to control the variability due to all possible extraneous sources. It is a procedure for equating groups with respect to secondary variable. Randomization means random selection of the experimental units from the larger population. Random assignment means that every experimental unit has an equal chance of being placed in any of the treatment conditions or group. In using randomization method some problems may be encountered. It is possible to select a random sample from a population, but then assignment of experimental units to groups may get biased. Random assignment of subjects is critical to internal validity. If subjects are not assigned randomly, confounding may occur.

 Randomized group design and randomized block design are the examples of research design in which randomization is used to control the extraneous variable.

2. Elimination: this procedure is the easiest way to controlling the unwanted extraneous variable through elimination of variable. Suppose, the sex of the subject as unwanted secondary variable, is found to influence the variable in an experiment. Therefore the variable of sex has to be controlled. The researcher may decide to take either all males and all females in an experiment and thus, controlled through elimination the variability due to the sex variable.

 By using elimination for controlling the extraneous variables, researcher looses the power of generalization. If the researcher selects the subject from a restricted range then the researcher can generalize the results within restricted range and not outside it. Elimination procedure is used in non-experimental design.

3. Matching: is also a non experimental design procedure, is used to control the extraneous source of variance. In case of controlling organismic and background variable matching is used in this procedure, the relevant variable are equated or held constant across all conditions of experiments. Suppose if the researcher finds that the variable of intelligence is highly correlated with the dependent variable, it is better to control the variance through matching on the variable of intelligence. However as amethod of control matching limits the availability of subjects. If the researcher decides to match subjects on two or three variables he may not find enough subjects for the experiment. Besides this the method of matching biases the principles of randomization.

4. Statistical Control: in this approach, no attempt is made to restrain the influence of

secondary variables. In this technique, one or more concomitant secondary variables (covariates) are measured and the dependent variable is statistically adjusted to remove the effect of the uncontrolled sources of variation. Analysis of covariances is one such technique. It is used to remove statistically the possible amount of variation in the concomitant secondary variable.

ERROR VARIANCE

The third function of a research design is to minimize the error variance. The error variance is defined as those variance or viabilities in the measures, which occurs as a function of the factors not controllable by the experimenter. Such factors may be related to the individual differences among the subjects themselves such as to their attitude, motivation, need, ability etc. They may be related to what is commonly called the errors of measurements such as the differences in trials, differences in conditions of experiment, temporary emotional state of the subject, fatigability etc.

 Statistical control can be applied to minimize such error variance. For example, repeated measures design can be used to minimize the experimental error. By this technique the variability due to the individual differences is taken out from the total variability, and thus, the error variance is reduced. Analysis of covariance is also a technique to reduce the error variance. Further, error variance can be controlled by increasing the reliability of measurement by giving clear and unambiguously instructions and by using a reliable measuring instrument etc.

SOURCES OF ERROR VARIANCE

 Poorly designed measurement instruments ( instrumental error)

 Error emanating from study subjects ( e.g., response error)

 Contextual factors that reduce a sound/ accurate measurement instrument’s capacity to measure accurately

 

CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Controlling variance of confounding variables:

 It can produce undesirable variation in the study’s dependent variables, and cause misleading or weird results

 In Experimental Settings :

1. Conducting the experiment in a controlled environment ( e.g., laboratory), where we can hold values of potential confounding variables constant

2. Subject selection (e.g., matching subjects in experiments)

3. Random assignments of subjects ( variation of confounding variables are evenly distributed between the experimental and control group)

 In Survey Research:

1. Sample selection (e.g., including only subjects with appropriate characteristics – using male college graduates as subjects will control for potential confounding effects of gender and education)

2. Statistical Control

CONCLUSION

There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for his research project.

An Effective research design is a function of - 

1) Adequate variability in values of research variables 

2) Precise and accurate measurement 

3) Identifying and controlling the effects of confounding variables and 

4) Appropriate subject selection

REFERENCE

1. Kerlinger, F N (1986). Foundations of Behavioural Research. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

2. Thyer, B.A. (1993) ‘ Single-systems Research Design’ in R.M. Grinnell (ed), Social Work, Research and Evaluation ( 4th ed), Itasca Illionois:Peacock

3. Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.

Small N Designs

Small N Designs

Single Subject Research Design (SSRD) involves studying a single individual or system by taking repeated measurements of 1 or more dependent variables and systematically applying & sometimes, withdrawing or varying the independent variable.

Small N Designs

• Designs that involve a very small number of participants

• Rather than reporting measures of central tendency, focus is placed on observations of individual scores/behaviors

Practical Reasons for doing Small N Research

• Procedures are costly / time consuming

• Procedures are invasive

• Procedures require intensive training

• Participants are rare / hard to find

Single-Subject Designs

• Goal: Behavior of a single participant must be shown to change as a result of the treatment

• Three Components

1) Target behavior must be operationally defined

2) Baseline level of responding must be established

3) Conduct treatment and monitor behavior 

• A-B Designs (baseline → treatment)

• Withdrawal Designs

– A-B-A Design

– A-B-A-B Design

Flood et al. (2002)

Study of ADHD Treatment Efficacy

• Participants: 3 10-year olds previously diagnosed with ADHD, not on meds

• IV: Treatment (single level)

– Ss paired with non-ADHD peer who praises Ss for “on task” behavior and prompts Ss after “off task” behavior

• DV: “Off task” behavior

– Looking away from assigned task for 3 seconds

Multiple Baseline Design

• Three varieties of Multiple Baseline Designs

• Baselines are established for:

(1) 1 type of behavior in 2+ individuals in 1 setting

(2) 2+ types of behaviors in 1 individual in 1 setting

(3) 1 behavior in 1 individual across 2+ settings

Wagaman et al. (1993)

• Multiple Baselines Across Subjects

– (1) 1 behavior in 2+ individuals in 1 setting 

• Participants: 8 school children

• IV: “Regulated breathing” treatment

• DV: Stuttering

Criticisms of Small N Designs

• Low external validity

• How do we handle this criticism?

– Evaluate generalizabilty within the design

– Replicate and extend the study 

Ethical Considerations

• Withdrawing a treatment that has changed behavior for the good

• Treatments can be controversial

• Case of special needs children

– Benefits of treatment

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 

Three types of experimental designs 

A. BETWEEN-SUBJECTS DESIGN: - Different groups of subjects are randomly assigned to the levels of the independent variable.

B. WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS: - Only one group of subjects; subjects receive all levels of the independent variable at different times.

C. SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS: - Use the same method of varying the level of the independent variable used by the with-in subjects designs. - Focus on change of individual subjects under the different treatment conditions.

WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS (repeated measures) 

The comparison of treatment effects involves looking at changes in performance within each subject across treatments. - Expose a single group of subject to all the treatments

TYPES OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS (family of designs)

1. SINGLE-FACTOR TWO-LEVEL DESIGN: 2 levels of a single independent variable. All subjects receive both levels of the variable. - If dependent variable not strongly affect by subject- related variable design will be less effective.

2. SINGLE-FACTOR MULTILEVEL DESIGNS: - More than two levels of the independent variable - Single group of subject is exposed to three or more levels of a single independent variable.

3. MULTIFACTOR WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS: Includes two or more independent variables

Factorial Designs: Each subject is exposed to every combination of levels of all the factors (independent variable) - Have main effects and interactions.

4. OTHER WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS: Nonfactorial design

5. MULTIVARIATE WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS: Use of more than one dependent variable

WHEN TO USE A WITHIN-SUBJECTS DESIGN:

1. SUBJECT VARIABLES CORRELATED WITH THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE: - Use when subject differences contribute heavily to variation in the dependent variable.

2. ECONOMIZING ON SUBJECTS: - Use when # of subjects is limited and carryover absent or minimized.

3. ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF INCREASED EXPOSURE ON BEHAVIOR: - Measured a number of trials, passage of time, etc. - Looking at changes as a function of earlier exposure

A. ADVANTAGES: - Close to matched groups. Within provides the ultimate in matching of characteristics. - Tends to be more powerful than equivalent between-subject design. - Increase power may allow for use of less subjects. 

B. DISADVANTAGES: - Amount of time in the experiment - Carryover effects

C. SOURCES OF CARRYOVER EFFECTS: Potential sources for carryover effects 

1. Learning: if learn a task; second performance is likely to be better if similar.

2. Fatigue: may lead to deterioration in later performance.

3. Habituation: reduction in responsiveness for repeated exposure.

4. Sensitization: exposure to one stimulus can cause subjects to respond more strongly to another stimulus.

5. Contrast: exposure to one condition may alter responses in other conditions

6. Adaptation (adjustments): may lead to different results due to adaptive changes (e.g., drug tolerance) 

D. DEALING WITH CARRYOVER EFFECTS: Three ways to deal with carryover effects. 

1. COUNTERBALANCING: assign various treatments of the experiment in a different order for different subjects.

a) COMPLETE COUNTERBALANCING: every possible ordering of treatments assign at least 1 subject to each ordering.

1) Every treatment follows every other treatment equally often.

2) Every treatment appears equally often in each position. - Minimum number of subjects is equal to the number of different ordering of the treatments. - k treatments have k! (k factorial). 3 x 2 x 1 = 6;

For four treatments: 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24

b) PARTIAL COUNTERBALANCING: include only some possible treatment orders. Orders retained are chosen randomly from total set. Latin Square Design: partially-counterbalanced design - Number of treatment order equivalent to number of treatments. - Each item appears exactly once in each column and row.

2. TAKING STEPS TO MINIMIZE CARRYOVER: if minimize the error variance – increases power - Pre-train subject - Allow breaks

3. MAKING TREATMENT ORDER AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: Order of treatment as a second independent variable.

BETWEEN-SUBJECTS DESIGNS (Family of Designs)

SINGLE-FACTOR RANDOMIZED GROUPS DESIGNS

Randomized Group Design: randomly assign subjects to level of independent; variable to form “groups” of subjects

1) THE RANDOMIZED TWO-GROUP DESIGN: 

+ Randomly assign subjects to two groups + Expose each to different levels of the independent variable. 

ADVANTAGES: simple to carry out 

1. Economical in terms of time and material. 

2. No Pre-testing of subjects in necessary 

DISADVANTAGES: 

1. Provides limited amount of information about effects of independent variable. 

2. Sensitivity:

2) THE RANDOMIZED MULTIGROUP DESIGN 

1. Single-Factor Parametric Design: assess independent variable at more than two levels.

2. Single-Factor Nonparametric Design: Nonparametric Design - nominal scale

3. Multiple Control Group Design: - Include multiple control groups when a single control group is not adequate to rule out alternative explanations of your results.

Small-N designs

Single Subject Research Design (SSRD) involves studying a single individual or system by taking repeated measurements of 1 or more dependent variables and systematically applying & sometimes, withdrawing or varying the independent variable.

Pseudo-experiment

It is a research design in which someone tests a claim about a variable (e.g., a product, a charm, a clinical treatment) by exposing people to the variable of interest and noting that these people think, feel, or behave as expected. People often treat these as if they were true experiments.

CONTROL TECHNIQUES

 CONTROL TECHNIQUES

Controlling variance of confounding variables:

In Experimental Settings :

1. Conducting the experiment in a controlled environment ( e.g.,laboratory),

2. Subject selection (e.g., matching subjects in experiments)

3. Random assignments of subjects ( variation of confounding variables are evenly distributed between the experimental and control group )

? In Survey Research:

1. Sample selection (e.g., including only subjects with appropriate characteristics – using male college graduates as subjects will control for potential confounding effects of gender and education)

2. Statistical Control

Moderating

In each relationship there is one Independent Variable (IV) & one Dependent Variable (DV)

Four day work week (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV).

Moderating variable is a second independent variable that has significant effect on the originally stated IV–DV relationship.

Four day work week (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among young workers (MV)

Some of the points you can also refer from this links:

https://books.google.co.in/books?id=h9KY83C0K5AC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq=Control+techniques-+Elimination,+Constancy&source=bl&ots=06kP2QDHfC&sig=ACfU3U0wNy8ID0gAxVye8ejOXY7dAAFgMQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjq-YOGju7mAhVu4jgGHemKCHE4ChDoATACegQIBxAB#v=onepage&q=Control%20techniques-%20Elimination%2C%20Constancy&f=false

Randomization

It is a statistical control technique designed to ensure that extraneous variable will not systematically bias the study results; 

It is done by equating groups of participants-ensuring that every member has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

Eg. Randomized group design and randomized block design

Randomization: an important method of controlling extraneous variables is randomization. It is considered to be the most effective way to control the variability due to all possible extraneous sources. If through randomization has been achieved then the treatment groups in the experiment could be considered statistically equal in all possible ways. Randomization is a powerful method of controlling variable. In other words it is a procedure for equating groups with respect to secondary variable. Randomization means random selection of the experimental units from the larger population. Random assignment means that every experimental unit has an equal chance of being placed in any of the treatment conditions or groups. In using randomization method some problems may be encountered. It is possible to select a random sample from a population, but then assignment of experimental units to groups may get biased. Random assignment of subjects is critical to internal validity. If subjects are not assigned randomly, confounding may occur.

Randomized group design and randomized block design are the examples of research design in which randomization is used to control the extraneous variable.

Statistical control:

Statistically controlling for extraneous variables is an option for removing the influence of the variable on the study design.

Evaluators need to collect data on the extraneous variables, as well as the independent and dependent variables for analysis. 

Evaluators can use a range of statistical techniques for control including:

General Linear Model

Analysis of covariance

Blocking

blocking is the arranging of experimental units in groups (blocks) that are similar to one another.

Blocking reduces unexplained variability.

Blocking used for nuisance factors that can be controlled. (reduce exptl error)

Examples

Male and Female:

Elevation --high or low

Intervention

Randomized block design

The general rule is:

“Block what you can; randomize what you cannot.”

Matching

It is used to control the extraneous source of variance.

Matching is a statistical technique which is used to evaluate the effect of a treatment by comparing the treated and the non-treated units in an experiment.

Matching enables a comparison of outcomes among treated and non-treated units to estimate the effect of the treatment reducing bias due to confounding.

Variance, Partitioning of variance, Sources of error variance

Important concepts- Variance, Partitioning of variance, Sources of error variance.

Kerlinger (1986) conceptualized experimental design as variance control.

Variance

Variance is the measure of the dispersion or spread of a set of scores. It describes the extent to which the scores differ from each other.

See the attachment file for practicing how to find out variance....

--measures of dispersion (spread of scores)

--statistical methods of data representation.

--Research design --variance is used for to control variance

--Researcher is analyze data to control unwanted variance.

--So, Variance control is the main theme in research design.

PRACTITIONING OF VARIANCE

--A researcher is used with 3 types of variance.

1.Experimental variance

2.Extraneous variance

3.Error variance

The main function of research design is MAXMINCON principle.

MAXIMIZE the effect of systematic variance

MINIMIZE error variance

CONTROL extraneous variance

1.Experimental variance (Systematic Variance)

--a researcher is maximize the variance of the variables related to the hypothesis.

--ie., variability in dependent variable measure to manipulate IV.

--So the experimenter MAXIMIZE variance

eg: Effects of intensity of light on visual acuity.

-manipulating three levels of light intensity i.e., 10ml, 15ml, 20ml.

2.Extraneous variance

--it is extraneous variables or relevant variables that   the experimenter tries to control relevant variables and eliminate variance produced by these variables.

-- so it requires proper CONTROL of extraneous variables.

--controlling techniques

-Randomization: random selection of exp. and con. group from population..equal chance of being represented.  eg, Randomized group design and randomized block design

-Elimination: avoiding secondary variable influence

-Matching: relavant variables

-Statistical Control: control secondary variable influence ---using analysis of covariance.

3. Error Variance:

--minimize error variance.

--is used when factors are not controlled by experimenter

-sources: attitude, motivation, need, ability etc...... differences in trials, conditions of experiment....emotional state of subject.... fatigability etc.

--statistical control is used minimize error variance

eg. repeated measures design (reduce experimental error)

    Analysis of covariance technique (to increase reliability_

SOURCES OF ERROR VARIANCE

? Poorly designed measurement instruments ( instrumental error)

? Error emanating from study subjects ( e.g., response error)

? Contextual factors that reduce a sound/ accurate measurement instrument’s

capacity to measure accurately

Experimental Research Design

 Experimental Research Design

Research Design- Introduction

RESEARCH DESIGN

 DEFINITION

 According to William Zikmund, “Research design is defined as a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collection and analyzing the needed information.”

 According to Kerlinger, “Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answer to research questions and to control variance.”

 

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

 It reduces inaccuracy.

 Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability.

 Eliminates bias and marginal errors.

 Minimizes wastage of time.

 Helpful for collecting research materials.

 Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time, and efforts.

 Guides the research in the right direction

A research design may be regarded as the blueprint of those procedures which are adapted by the researcher for testing the relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable. There are several kinds of experimental designs and the selection of any one is based upon the purpose of the research, types of variables to be controlled and manipulated as well as upon the conditions under which the experiment is to be conducted. 

The main purpose of experimental design is to help the researcher in manipulating the independent variables freely and to provide maximum control of the extraneous variables so that it may be said with all certainty that the experimental change is due to only the manipulation of the experimental variable. 

The main function of a research design is to explain how you will find answers to your research questions. The research design sets out the logic of your inquiry. It includes the study design and the logistical arrangements that you propose to undertake as well as the measurement procedures. It includes also the sampling strategy, the frame of analysis and the time frame. For any investigation the selection of an appropriate research design is crucial to enable the researcher to arrive at valid findings, comparisons and conclusions. 

According to Thyer (1993) a traditional research design is a blueprint or detailed plan for how to conduct a research study and how to complete the same. Planning such a research design involves, (i) operationalising variables so that they can be measured, (ii) selecting a sample of interest to study, (iii) collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypothesis, and (iv) analysing the results.

According to Matheson (1970) a research design is a basic plan for research, including the assignment of subjects to the levels of the independent variable and the manipulation of the independent variable.

According to Kerlinger (1986) research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.

The definition of Kerlinger reveals three important components, which are 

(i) research design is a plan 

(ii) research design is the structure 

(iii) research design is the strategy. 

Let us see what these are:

i) Research Design is the Plan: The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.

ii) Research Design is the Structure: The structure of the research is more specific. It is the outline, the scheme, the paradigm, of the operation of the variables. When we draw diagrams that outline the variables and their relation and juxtaposition, we build structural schemes for accomplishing operational research purposes.

iii) Research Design is the Strategy: Strategy as used here is also more specific than plan. It includes the methods to be used to gather and analyse the data. In other words strategy implies how the research objectives will be reached and how the problems encountered in the research will be tackled.

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COUNSELLING PRACTICES FOR SPECIAL NEED POPULATIONS

COUNSELLING PRACTICES FOR SPECIAL NEED POPULATIONS

BY 

DR MALAMI UMAR TAMBAWAL EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS UNIT FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND EXTENSION SERVICES USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO.

Abstract 

The paper discussed the need for change of approach for counselling services from the hitherto school setting, to a more generalized view of the whole fabric of the society thereby limiting its scope to special need populations who by the nature and peculiarity of situations demand a specialized approach in order to resolve their psycho-social and academic problems. The task of counselling as observed in this paper, therefore, is giving the individual the opportunity to define, explore, discover and adopt ways of living a more satisfying and resourceful life within the social, educational and vocational groupings within which he or she identifies or finds him/herself. The paper examined the counselling needs of a segment of the special population viz: the Youth, Drug Abused, Handicapped/physically challenged and retirees, and preferred certain strategies for counselling such groups. Recommendations were also given for meeting the challenges counselling faced in order to address the issues of the populations such as that. Such that the Counsellor based training Curriculum in our Universities and Colleges of Education should be broadened and enlarged, so that trainees would come to terms with the specific needs of counselling clients with special problem during practical attachments. The paper concluded by employing the Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON) to brace up and face the enormous challenges of Counselling the special need populations. 

Introduction 

Counselling outside the school setting is receiving increased attention globally because of the existing complexities of life ranging from urbanization, globalization and technological break through which is bringing a lot shift in people’s way of life either by way of job creation and adaptation to it or by way of living in urban and rural areas. Individuals today face a lot of challenges some are natural, or through illness and accidents or as a results of man’s innovation and creation, thus making them to require a special assistance in order to cope with demanding situation in which they found themselves. Counselling which is aimed at helping individuals to resolve critical life issues can be at hand to see how such groups could be assisted. The growing economic hardships of our times, unemployment problems, health related issues, growing demand for accommodation by individuals, the traumas of political and religious upheavals all make certain people fall into some anxieties that may lead them to require special attention and thus in turn make them special population. The thrust of this paper is to identify some of these groups and come up with the appropriate counselling strategies that can be used to assist them. Yakubu (2000) asserted that a special population is any group of people identified with certain empirical evidences or features that distinguished them from the normal persons. These make them “a special population” that are cannot help admiring them in a special way, due to the features that make them strange from all others. It should however, be noted that the features do not only involve negative qualities but also positive ones. Anything that makes one look or behave different from others make one a special. Counselling is viewed as a personalized, intimate interview or dialogue between a person experiencing some emotional, social, educational, physical, and vocational problems and a professional counsellor. It can also be seen as a service that helps individual to solve problems and learn to cope with these problems that are not easy to solve. This is why the special needs population can be focused so that they are assisted out of their needs. Counselling is designed to remove the emotional, psychological and personal social roadblocks placed in the way of an individual by the multidimensional problems of the day to day life.  

The involvement of counselling with special population therefore is to improve and possibly remedy the challenges, facing people with special needs. The educational challenges facing these category of people are quite obvious and they need new strategies in resolving through counselling. This is because according to Ipaye (1981), the individual learns new ways if interacting, new ways of obtaining information, new ways of making decisions, and new ways of responding to the environment and new ways of interacting. The task of counselling therefore as seen by Ipaye (1981), Denga (1990), Mallum (1983), Okon (1983), Akinboye (1982) and Bulus (1989) is to give the individual the opportunity to define, explore, discover and adopt ways of living a more satisfying and resourceful life within the social, educational and vocational groupings within which he or she is identified or finds himself or herself. The challenges of life has made some people feeling as not existing well, but through education as a tool for moral, social, economic, political and technological development, has affected some changes in human lives and the society as well. Human communities have used education to improve their standard of living, develop new methods and skills of production, so is the need of counselling practices for special need populations. 

Special Need Population 

Depending upon the context one wishes to stand, the earlier definition which states that special population is any group of people identified to be different from other people, is adopted in of this paper. 

Yakubu (2000) presented the following as special need population: (1) Drug abused (2) Handicapped (3) HIV/AIDS patients 5 (4) Stressful and anxiety patients (5) Retirees (6) Widows and widowers (7) The women (8) The Adolescents (9) The negative self concept people (10) The Nomads (11) The unemployed (12) The orphans (13) The riverine people (14) The prisoners, etc. 

However, Bulus (2009) also identified the following as special need population: (1) Marital and family segments (2) Women (3) The aged (4) Exceptional persons (5) Youths (6) Victims of crises (7) Workers (8) Persons requiring rehabilitation and reintegration. 

Having seen the varied views on special populations, this paper focused on the following, which does not exhaust the groups but for convenience of presentation. 

The groups are: The Youths, Drug Abused, Handicapped/Physically challenged, and retirees. 

The Youths. 

Carew (2009), opined that, the youths constitute a fairly good size of the national population. The characteristics of the youths and the need to effectively serve them make it imperative for counsellors to respond to their concerns. Psychologists and sociologists generally agree that the period of youth is characterized with high demonstration of energy, zest and unrest. In line with this, Bulus (2009) stated that, issues surrounding the youths include: choice of friends, consequences of complex changes in society, unemployment, drug addiction, cultism, examination malpractices, consequences of physical, emotional and psychological changes etcetera. Counsellors would need coping skills to meet the youth desires and aspirations. They require personal counselling for all the concerns to make wise rational and scientific lasting choices/decision by the society. The youth that fall into the category of special population can be identified as the Area Boys, militant youth of Niger Delta and creeks, the religious fanatics, the truants and drug abused. The area boys are most often used by politicians for political campaigns and vote rigging and thereby discarded after elections to cause havoc to members of the general public. The militants for social and economic reasons rake havoc in the Niger Delta thereby causing shortfall in Petroleum products activities which affects Nigeria’s international trade and power production in the country. Some unpatriotic Nigerians and misguided individual here used youths to create religious crisis, especially in the Northern part of the country. The repercussions of such religious crisis have turned out to be expensive in terms of human lives and property. The social and psychological damage cannot be quantified. Some of the indicators of crisis among youth as opined by Nwakaibie (2006), are sexual promiscuity, drug abuse, cultism, amorality and behavioural disorders that have reached alarming proportions and demand counsellors paying attention to them. It is in this regard that Denga (2009) opined that counselling psychology is replete with behavioural contingencies that can be used to modify maladaptative behaviour, chronic frustration, misplaced aggression, excessive love for cupidity (or money) and other assorted or variegated cargo of criminal behaviours. 

In order to modify maladaptive behaviour, Lar, Okpede and Bulus (1992) suggested the following techniques: 1) Negative Reinforcement: This involves punishment for exhibiting unwanted behaviour. It ranges from painful physical stimulation and deprivation to weaker reinforcer such as verbal criticism, hostility or simple expression of dislike. 2) Positive Reinforcement: This means rewarding people for exhibiting a specific wanted behaviour. 3) Extinction: 

This is otherwise referred to as the ignore technique in counselling, it is used to refer to the process of returning a behaviour to its original or pre-reinforcement level. It also connotes the gradual elimination of a new response through rewards of the reinforcers. 4) Shaping: This involves initiating planned changes in another’s behaviour and actually keeping track of the progress and positively reinforcing those behaviours that begin to appropriate the desired end product more and more. 5) Modelling: This refers to the process whereby elaborate sequences or complex sets of behaviours are initiated. It involves a situation where people who do not know how to act have to rely on others around them, imitating their behaviours. 6) Response Cost Technique: This involves making an individual to loose or forfeit something that is of value to him/her as a result of a negative/unwanted behaviour. 7) The Time our Technique: This involves the removal of offender from a reinforcing environment and situation to a non reinforcing environment and situation where he is to stay alone for a while to pay for his behaviour. 8) Systematic Desensitization Technique: This involves helping people who manifest fear in the presence of certain objects or persons and incidences. These techniques can also be applied to other specialized populations. 

Drug Abused 

The youths are the most vulnerable group of drug abuse; therefore there is need for an understanding of why many youths have the need to abuse drugs, which would go along way in counselling them. The following were identified by Yakubu (2000) as the possible causes of drug abuse: (1) The drive towards modernization (2) Excessive use of drugs made or induced young ones to experiment as well. (3) Seeking of pleasure (4) To help cope with personal problems and psychological stress. (5) Young ones trying to protest against norms imposed on them by the society. (6) Increase in international contacts as to imitate life styles (7) Social factors such as peer influence. (8) Poor self-image and frequent experience feelings of lack of selfesteem. (9) Marital disharmony, family stress and the break up of families are important factors. (10) The desire to achieve in a competitive world like the case of Diego Maradona in USA 1994. (11) Ignorance (12) Mass media. It can be noted from the above that, there is no single causes of drug abuse. It is however generally agreed that certain reasons for abuse are important, such as availability of drugs, a vulnerable personality and social pressure. 

According to Abayemi (1990) many drug users, particularly adolescents taking non-prescribed drugs appear to have personality disorder before taking drugs as shown by poor school record, truancy, delinquency and dropout. Such drug-abusers often seems to be without resources to cope with the challenges of day-today life, They are inconsistent in their feelings and critical of society and authority; some drug abusers give a history of mental illness or personality disorder in the family, or they come from severely disorganized background. Abayemi (1990) opined that a history of childhood unhappiness is common among drug abusers. Drug abusers are prone to many social and psychological problems, for according to Oladele (2007) in many cases, individuals not only break the law by obtaining their drugs, but engage in illegal activities to obtain money needed to buy the drugs. He can also create illegal network of channels for drug distribution and sale. The individual dependent on drug often makes the acquisition of drugs a way of life, living little time for work or school. Drug abuse poses the greatest threat to the health and survival of mankind. 

For instance, alcohol can cause liver disease, like cirrhosis, 10 hepatitis and cancer. Many drug abusers die of HIV/AIDS. Many of the HIV – positive population are drug users who injected themselves with infected needles. Many babies born are exposed to illicit drug while in the womb. Such children suffer damaging effects both mentally and physically and painful withdrawal symptoms. Drugs have destroyed several homes. Parents who crave for drugs rarely provide for their children with a stable and loving home. Children who grow in environment where drugs users live take to the streets as “area boys” or street urchins or even get involved in drug themselves. Often people involved in drugs are responsible for crimes such as mugging, armed robbery, murder, drug trafficking, and increased risk of homicide and prostitution. 

The counselling strategies that can be employed for drug abused individuals or groups should include the following: (a) confrontation (b) accurate education (c) assertiveness training (d) decision making strategies (e) Peer cluster involvement (Adegoke, 2003:72). 

Handicapped/physically challenged 

The handicapped/physically challenged according to Carew (2009) consist of physical, social, psychological, mental and economic individuals who deviate from the normal population. The term challenged have been interchangeably used with disadvantaged or handicapped for whom special education should be provided. Some times the term “exceptional” individuals, is used for special education and in that case the gifted and talented consist of this categorization. The challenged group of individuals  (especially in the school system) are those that would need special education because their abilities, emotionality, mental, behavioural and social characteristics are different from the normal population (Mba 1991). 

The categories into which individuals that are handicapped or physically challenged include: (1) the hearing disabled, (2) the mentally retarded (3) The physical and health impaired. (4) The speech and hearing – impaired (5) The visually – impaired (6) Children with behaviour disorders (disturbed hearing behaviour) (7) The gifted and talented, Individuals with one kind of disability or the other needs special kind of attention in order to fit into normal life with the generality of the population in terms of adjustment and information. 

In line with this Nwoye (1998), asserted that, the counsellor should however remember that they need the adjustment and informational services at two basic levels: namely those to be given to them directly and those to be given to them indirectly through their parents, the peers, their teachers and their potential employers. In counselling the physically challenged directly, the first thing to do for them is to help them adjust their minds and feelings to the meaning and implications of their challenged conditions. 

To help them in this regard the counsellor needs to apply much of his professional counselling skills such as that of empathy, rapport building, and adequate cross-checking of feelings, effective communication and unconditional positive regard. To be able to use these skills in counselling the physically challenged, the counsellor needs first of all to get his cognitive field sufficiently 12 broadened concerning the nature and implications of the different categories of challenging conditions. And this implies that he needs to read a lot concerning the needs and problems of the various challenging conditions so as to be able to gather enough relevant information that might help him to be able to correct in good time any prior misconceptions he may be entertaining concerning the various individuals challenged by one specific disability or the other. 

Helping a physically challenged client to adjust to his condition requires giving him counselling on how to plan an effective strategy for improving his other positive aspects of self and then helping him to determine how to manage most of his existing challenging conditions so as to help him control as much as possible, the obstacles they can present to his progress in life. The informational strategy that could be employed for the physically challenged is on the issue of how to help clients to understand the true nature and implication of his particular challenging situation. And then, to go ahead from there, to help him identify the known strategies for handling the disability. Information that is most relevant in this regard, is that concerned with the issue of where to obtain adequate diagnosis for his specific type of handicap, and then an assessment of the extent of his chances of gaining effective education in spite of all his conditions, and subsequently the opportunities he will have for entering into some gainful employment after receiving relevant training. 

To counsel them on how to obtain effective remediation for their peculiar handicap the counsellor needs to make adequate effort to acquaint himself with relevant information concerning the agencies and appropriate health organizations that are known to possess the 13 specialist personnel and resources for arresting further complication of the particular disabilities troubling his target client. The physically challenged client indeed can also be helped to be relevant of much of his anxieties if he is helped to identify and relate with all relevant philanthropic organizations both local and international, which can come to his aid, in his effort to negotiate effectively for assistances from such organizations. The Retirees The beginning of retirement marks a new phase in people lives. 

When one crosses the boundary between employment and retirement, questions of meaning will inevitably arise, if they have not been acknowledged. Even if there has been some thought about those questions, taking retirement provides an actual live experience rather anticipated experience. How do we find meaning in retirement? What will one do with the rest of his/her life? How can one build structure in his life to take the place of work? To be engaged in a worthy struggle might be essential to people’s survival. How can one make his/her life a worthwhile contribution to humanity? These are just some of the types of questions that are relevant to the retire (Tambawal 2008). These questions and similar ones make the retirees special population because they are saddled with the situation of disengaging from the bubbles of life, to retirement and its attendant problems. 

Tambawal (2008) asserted that professional literature have identified certain psycho social effects of retirement on retirees which calls for counselling such as disbelief or denial which according to Christy & Anyim (2005), is the situation in which one is in a fantasy. He is not sure whether he is dreaming or smoothing real is happening. Another problem as 14 identified by Akinade (2003) is anger where a retiree may be annoyed either with self, the employer; anyone in his family he suspects has contributed to his fate. Anxiety disorder, depression and substance abuse are also identified by Christy and Anyim (2005) as being part of the problems encountered by retirees. The identified problems call for a concerted effort from the counselling world to help retirees adjust to normal life. In counselling retiree therefore, Egong, Akepami and Usani (2005) suggested a normal programme for counselling, where they indicated that: to assist the retiree to adapt to another style of life on retirement, duration of which should be six months. 

The specific objectives of the training programme are as follows: (1) participate in pre-retirement orientation programme, (2) attend seminars and workshops on skills acquisition for alternative job, (3) learn how to make use of pension benefits, (4) Acquire interpersonal skills for new life. For counsellors to do this effectively Nwoye (1990), identified the following steps to be taken: (a) identification of the problem for which counselling remediation is sought; (b) Definition, in behavioural terms of the specific goal to be achieved in the face of the problem is in need of resolution. (c) Behavioural assessment and determination of the baseline data regarding the occurrence and intensity of the problem under attention; (d) Determination and selection of the treatment strategies to be applied for the achievement of the goal that has been specified.  (e) Evaluation of the counselling outcome vis-avis the goal but in advance of treatment strategies applied. 

Okpede (1998) identified the following as the counselling needs of retirees which should be the focus: (a) Vocational counselling (b) Readjustment counselling (c) Dietary counselling (d) Grooming counselling Retirement as a programme that inflicts psychological, social, economic and mental disadvantages on the victims can be seen to require specialized attention, and this is from no other source than counselling, a need to be properly groomed to welcome and cope successfully with it when it comes. 

RECOMMENDATION 

1. The counsellor based training curriculum in our Universities and Colleges of Education should be broadened and enlarged, so that trainees would come to terms with the specific needs of counseling clients with special problem during practical attachments. 2. Specialized training be given to individual counsellors instead of been generalist, the would be counsellor should trained in such a way he can conveniently and professionally handle issues relating to his specialization, like in medicine and law where people specialize in particular areas. 3. An increased public awareness on the role of counsellors in our midst should be undertaken by both print and electronic media. 4. The practicum for trainee counsellors should be conducted not only within the school setting but also within specialized areas and  population, so that trainees will come to face the life situations of clients. 5. A collaborative working relationship be formal between counsellors and others in the helping relationship, by sociologist, psychologist, psychiatrists, etc. so that ideas can be shared and meaningful assistance could be given to clients. 

Conclusion 

Counselling as a profession that is gaining acceptance in our school and non-school setting due to its approach in resolving human problems. Specific planning and approaches need to be in place for counselling special populations. Therefore, there is need for more expanded and specialized training of the would be counsellors and the Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON) needs to brace up to face the enormous challenges of counselling special populations. 

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