Anchored Instruction (John Bransford and the CTGV)

Overview:

Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by the Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderb ilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford. While many people have contributed to the theory and research o f anchored instruction, Bransford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory is attributed to him.

The initial focus of the wo rk was on the development of interactive videodisc tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve complex, realistic problems. The video materials serve as "anchors" (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning an d instruction. As explai ned by CTGV (1993, p52): "The design of these anchors was quite different from the design of videos that were typically used in education...our goal was to create interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active construct ion of knowledge by l earners. Our anchors were stories rather than lectures and were designed to be explored by students and teachers. " The use of interactive videodisc technology makes it possible for students to easily explore the content.

Anchored instruction is close ly related to the situated learning framework (see CTGV, 1990, 1993) and also to the Cognitive Flexibility theory in its emphasis on the use of technology-based learning.

Scope/Application:

Th e primary application of anchored instruction has been to elementary reading, language arts and mathematics skills. The CLGV has developed a set of interactive videodisc programs called the "Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series". These programs involve adventures in which mathematical concepts are used to solve problems . However, the anchored instruction paradigm is based upon a general model of problem-solving (Bransford & Stein (1993).

Example:

One of the early anchored instruction activit ies involved the use of the film, "Young Sherlock Holmes" in interactive videodisc form. Students were asked to examine the film in terms of causal connections, motives of the characters, and authenticity of th e settings in order to understand the natu re of life in Victorian England. The film provides the anchor for an understanding of story-telling and a particular historical era.

Principles:

1. Learning and teaching activities should be designed around a "anchor" which should be some sort of case-study or problem situation.

2. Curriculum materials should allow exploration by the learner (e.g., interactive videodisc programs).

For more about anchored instruction, visit the web sites of John Bransford or the Jasper Woodbury project at Vanderbilt University.

References:

Bransford, J.D. et al. (1990). Anchored instruction: Why we need it and how technology can hel p. In D. Nix & R. Sprio (Eds), Cognition, education and multimedia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

Bransford, J.D. & Stein, B.S. (1993). The Ideal Problem Solver (2nd Ed). New York: Freeman.

CTGV (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationshi p to situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19 (6), 2-10.

CTGV (1993). Anchored instruction and situated cognition revisted. Educational Technology, 33 (3), 52- 70.

ANDRAGOGY (M.KNOWLES) - KNOWLES' THEORY OF ANDRAGOGY

Overview:

Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory specifically for adult learning. Knowles emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Adult learning programs must accommodate this fundamental aspect.

Andragogy makes the following assumptions about the design of learning: (1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something (2) Adults need to learn experientially, (3) Adults approach learning as problem-solving, and (4) Adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value.

In practical terms, andragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught. Strategies such as case studies, role playing, simulations, and self-evaluation are most useful. Instructors adopt a role of facilitator or resource rather than lecturer or grader.

Scope/Application:

Andragogy applies to any form of adult learning and has been used extensively in the design of organizational training programs (especially for "soft skill" domains such as management development).

Example:

Knowles (1984, Appendix D) provides an example of applying andragogy principles to the design of personal computer training:

1. There is a need to explain why specific things are being taught (e.g., certain commands, functions, operations, etc.)

2. Instruction should be task-oriented instead of memorization -- learning activities should be in the context of common tasks to be performed.

3. Instruction should take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners; learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers.

4. Since adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover things for themselves, providing guidance and help when mistakes are made.

(See computers for further discussion of this topic).

Principles:

1. Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

2. Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.

3. Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life.

4. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented.

References:

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-Directed Learning. Chicago: Follet.

Knowles, M. (1984). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (3rd Ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.

Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Relevant Web Sites:

For more about Knowles and his work, see:

http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/malcolmknowles.cfm
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm
http://www.newhorizons.org/future/Creating_the_Future/crfut_knowles.html

ALGO-HEURISTIC THEORY (L.LANDA)

Overview:

Landa's theory is concerned with identifying mental processes -- conscious and especially unconscious -- that underlie expert learning, thinking and performance in any area. His methods represent a system of techniques for getting inside the mind of expert learners and performers which enable one to uncover the processes involved. Once uncovered, they are broken down into their relative elementary components -- mental operations and knowledge units which can be viewed as a kind of psychological "atoms" and "molecules". Performing a task or solving a problem always requires a certain system of elementary knowledge units and operations.

There are classes of problems for which it is necessary to execute operations in a well structured, predefined sequence (algorithmic problems). For such problem classes, it is possible to formulate a set of precise unambiguous instructions (algorithms) as to what one should do mentally and/or physically in order to successfully solve any problem belonging to that class. There are also classes of problems (creative or heuristic problems) for which precise and unambiguous sets of instructions cannot be formulated. For such classes of problems, it is possible to formulate instructions that contain a certain degree of uncertainty (heuristics). Landa also describes semi-algorithmic and semi-heuristic problems, processes and instructions.

The theory suggests that all cognitive activities can be analyzed into operations of an algorithmic, semi-algorithmic, heuristic, or semi-heuristic nature. Once discovered, these operations and their systems can serve as the basis for instructional strategies and methods. The theory specifies that students ought to be taught not only knowledge but the algorithms and heuristics of experts as well. They also have to be taught how to discover algorithms and heuristics on their own. Special emphasis is placed on teaching students cognitive operations, algorithms and heuristics which make up general methods of thinking (i.e., intelligence).

With respect to sequencing of instruction, Landa proposes a number of strategies, the most important of which is the "snowball" method. This method applies to teaching a system of cognitive operations by teaching the first operation, then the second which is practiced with the first, and so on.

Scope/Application:

While this is a general theory of learning, it is illustrated primarily in the context of mathematics and foreign language instruction. In recent years, Landa has applied his theory to training settings under the name "Landamatics" (Educational Technology , 1993)

Example:

Landa (1976) provides the following example of an algorithm for teaching a foreign speaker how to choose among the English verbs "to offer", "to suggest" and "to propose":

Check to see whether something that one presents to another person is a tangible object or viewed as tangible. If yes, use "offer". If no, it is an idea about some action to be performed. Check to see if this idea is presented formally. If yes, use "propose", otherwise use "suggest".

Applying the snowball method would involve teaching the student the action of checking the first condition and then the action of checking the second condition followed by practice that requires both conditions to be checked. Landa explains that after sufficient practice the application of the algorithm would become automatic and unconscious.

Principles:

1. It is more important to teach algo-heuristic processes to students than prescriptions (knowledge of processes); on the other hand, teachers need to know both.

2. Processes can be taught through prescriptions and demonstrations of operations.

3. Teaching students how to discover processes is more valuable than providing them already formulated.

4. Break processes down into elementary operations of size and length suitable for each student (individualization of instruction).

References:

Educational Technology (1993). Landamatics ten years later. Educational Technology, 33(6), 7-18.

Landa, L. (1974). Algorithmization in Learning and Instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Landa, L. (1976). Instructional Regulation and Control: Cybernetics, Algorithmization, and Heuristics in Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Relevant Web Sites:

For more about Landa and his work, see:

http://www.wiu.edu/users/mflll/landa.htm
http://tecfa.unige.ch/staf/staf9698/mullerc/3/landa.html

'HIV Medics' Training Program from IGNOU and AHF

Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and AHF/ India Cares
Partner in Groundbreaking AIDS Care Training Initiative in Delhi

NEW DELHI (July 11, 2008) Indian, US Partners to Train Community Members as `HIV Medics'—Healthcare Workers in the Fight against AIDS HIV Medics are paraprofessional healthcare workers trained to assist clinicians in the provision of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for people living with HIV.

India's Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and AIDS Healthcare Foundation (AHF), the US' largest HIV/AIDS organization, which operates free AIDS treatment clinics in the US, Africa, Latin America/Caribbean and Asia, (including two clinics in India—Delhi and Mysore) are pleased to announce the formation of a new partnership through which AHF—India Cares will work closely with the University to promote and implement training and education programs for people working in the field of HIVAIDS.

The partners will work together on educational training programs such as AHF's innovative HIV Medics program, through which AHF medical staff train lay people to work as treatment extenders in the burgeoning, yet often understaffed field of HIV/AIDS care in Africa and elsewhere in the developing world.

"It is a great privilege for us to join together with Indira Gandhi
National Open University to bring AHF's HIV Medic education and
training program to India, which is world repute in providing quality
education through distance learning" said Dr. Chinkholal Thangsing,
Asia/Pacific Bureau Chief for AIDS Healthcare Foundation, which
operates AHF—India Cares.

"This new partnership marks the first time an AHF HIV Medics training program will take place outside of Africa, and we are deeply honored that India will be among the first countries in the Asia Pacific region to benefit from this groundbreaking program.

The need for access to HIV/AIDS medical care and treatment throughout India remains great; we sincerely believe this collaboration will help ease that burden by training qualified HIV Medics to assist in the delivery of care and treatment for people living with HIV/AIDS."

AHF's HIV Medics are community health workers who perform routine, but time-consuming tasks such as taking a patient's blood pressure and medical history, thereby freeing up valuable time for doctors and nurses to see and treat many more patients. Since 2004, AHF has conducted four HIV Medic training programs; two each in Uganda and Zambia, training over 100 HIV Medics.

The formal signing of the memorandum of understanding between IGNOU and AHF/India Cares took place in a ceremony yesterday at the Embassy of the United States, American Center Office, Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi, India.

"IGNOU has achieved the distinction of becoming the largest University in the world with 1.8 million students on its rolls" said Prof. V. N. Rajasekharan Pillai, Vice-Chancellor, Chairman, Distance Education Council, IGNOU. He had all the praise for AHF India Cares collaboration with IGNOU and extended support to HIV Medics programme to integrate with the programmes offered by IGNOU.

Under this MoU, IGNOU and AHF India Cares would jointly prepare the curriculum and provide the training on a face to face mode. IGNOU would prepare a module on `Social, Ethical and Educational aspects pertaining to HIVAIDS' while AHF would share their expertise on `Medical and Clinical aspects including hands on training'.

"Service to people at large is service to the nation. IGNOU is fortunate to associate with AHF India Cares who are providing access to medical support, education and training to the needy. By
collaborating with AHF India Cares the objective of IGNOU to reach the unreached will be fulfilled to some extent," said K. Laxman, Registrar, IGNOU after signing the MoU.

"The establishment of this new HIV Medic training partnership in India is truly a major milestone for both organizations," said Mary Adair, PA-C, AHF Director of Global Training, who has conducted and overseen all previous Medic Training programs for AHF in Africa and will also
lead the first Medic Training program in India later this fall.

"This collaboration should also serve as a beacon of hope for many people living with HIV/AIDS in India, as it will ultimately allow medical providers—doctors, nurses, and physicians assistants—the ability to expand and scale up the provision medical care and services, including the delivery of lifesaving anti-retroviral treatment to people living with HIV/AIDS in India."

"Bringing the HIV Medics program to India should ultimately help usher more HIV positive Indians and those already living with AIDS into care and treatment," said Michael Weinstein, AIDS Healthcare Foundation's resident. "We look forward to our collaboration with our partners at Indira Gandhi National Open University and thank all who were involved in securing this exciting new training partnership."

HIV Medics are paraprofessional healthcare workers trained to assist linicians in the provision of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for people living with HIV. AIDS Healthcare Foundation first developed the program to address the shortage of healthcare workers in resource-constraine d countries.

HIV Medics provide initial patient screenings, complete patient istories and refer patients to physicians for physical exams and initiation of ART. They also draw blood, dispense medications and provide medication adherence counseling and HIV testing.

Shifting of these aforementioned tasks to the HIV Medics frees up physicians, nurses and other healthcare professionals for more complex tasks and enables them to see more patients. These factors contribute to the overall goal of increasing the number of people receiving ART and improving the quality and continuity of care.

The HIV Medic training is designed for students with no prior medical training or experience. The training program is intensive and covers 12 weeks of full-time study. HIV Medic students must have a high-school equivalent education, read and write English and be able to commit to the full 12 weeks of training in order to enter the training program. In addition, HIV Medics are often HIV-positive themselves.

According to a United Nations-sanctioned report that was released by ndian Health Minister Anbumani Ramadoss in July 2007, India is thought to have nearly 2.47 million living with HIV/AIDS today. With a population of over 1.1 billion, India's HIV prevalence is still considered relatively low; however only a small fraction of those people living with the disease have access to lifesaving care and medical treatment. It is expected that the HIV Medics trained by this partnership between AHF/India Cares and Indira Gandhi National Open University will help lessen the burden on Indian care providers and increase the numbers of those on care and treatment throughout India.


About AHF:

Additional information is available at www.aidshealth.org
About AHF/India Cares In India, under the aegis of AIDS Healthcare Foundation, AHF/India Cares was established to carry forward the mission and goals of AHF and implement programs as AHF/India Cares. AHF/India Cares and operates antiretroviral treatment programs in Indian cities of New Delhi and Mysore.

AHF provides ART treatment and care services to 4,423 people infected with HIV/AIDS throughout the country. The AHF India Cares Clinic in New Delhi, the Centre of Excellence, opened in October 2006, and offers testing, psychosocial support and ART services, including pediatric treatment. The goal of the center is to provide ART services to 2,000 patients over a period of five years.

CONTACTS:

INDIA

Dr Chinkholal Thangsing
Asia Pacific Bureau Chief
AIDS Healthcare Foundation
S-7 Panchsheel Park,
New Delhi 110017
+91 11 41745541/42
+91 11 41745543[Fax]
+91 98 18270687
chinkholal.thangsing@aidshealth.org

K. Laxman
Registrar
Administration Division
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Maidan Garhi,
New Delhi 110068
INDIA
+91 11 29532098 [work]
+91 11 26493982 [res.]

Adult Learning (K. P. Cross)

Adult Learning (K. P. Cross)

Overview:
Cross (1981) presents the Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model in the context of her analysis of lifelong learning programs. The model attempts to integrate other theoretical frameworks for adult learning such as andragogy ( Knowles ), experiential learning ( Rogers ), and lifespan psychology.
The CAL model consists of two classes of variables: personal characteristics and situational characteristics. Personal characteristics include: aging, life phases, and developmental stages. These three dimensions have different characteristics as far as lifelong learning is concerned. Aging results in the deterioration of certain sensory-motor abilities (e.g., eyesight, hearing, reaction time) while intelligence abilities (e.g., decision-making skills, reasoning, vocabulary) tend to improve. Life phases and developmental stages (e.g., marriage, job changes, retirement) involve a series of plateaus and transitions which may or may not be directly related to age.
Situational characteristics consist of part-time versus full-time learning, and voluntary versus compulsory learning. The administration of learning (i.e., schedules, locations, procedures) is strongly affected by the first variable; the second pertains to the self-directed, problem-centered nature of most adult learning.
Scope/Application:
The CAL model is intended to provide guidelines for adult education programs. There is no known research to support the model.
Example:
Consider three adults: a nursing student, a new parent, and a middle-aged social worker about to take a course on child development. Each of these individuals differs in age (20,30,40) and life/developmental phases (adolescent/searching, young/striving, mature/stable). They also differ in terms of situational characteristics: for the nursing student, the course is full-time and compulsory, for the parent, it is part-time and optional; for the social worker it is part-time but required. According to the CA L model, a different learning program might be necessary for these three individuals to accomodate the differences in personal and situational characteristics.
Principles:
1. Adult learning programs should capitalize on the experience of participants.
2. Adult learning programs should adapt to the aging limitations of the participants.
3. Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal development.
4. Adults should have as much choice as possible in the availability and organization of learning programs.
References:
Cross, K.P. (1981). Adults as Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cross, K.P. (1976). Accent on Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Related Web Sites:
For more about adult learning, see:

http://adulted.about.com/cs/learningtheory/http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/adults-2.htm

ACT (J. Anderson)

ACT* (J. Anderson)

Overview:
ACT* is a general theory of cognition developed by John Anderson and colleagues at Carnegie Mellon Univeristy that focuses on memory processes . It is an elaboration of the original ACT theory (Anderson, 1976) and builds upon HAM, a model of semantic memory proposed by Anderson & Bower (1973). Anderson (1983) provides a complete description of ACT*. In addition, Anderson (1990) provides his own critique of ACT* and Anderson (1993) provides the outline for a broader development of the theory. See the CMU ACT site for the most up-to-date information on the theory.

ACT* distinguishes among three types of memory structures: declarative, procedural and working memory. Declarative memory takes the form of a semantic net linking propositions, images, and sequences by associations. Procedural memory (also long-term) represents information in the form of productions; each production has a set of conditions and actions based in declarative memory. The nodes of long-term memory all have some degree of activation and working memory is that part of long-term memory that is most highly activated.
According to ACT*, all knowledge begins as declarative information; procedural knowledge is learned by making inferences from already existing factual knowledge. ACT* supports three fundamental types of learning: generalization, in which productions become broader in their range of application, discrimination, in which productions become narrow in their range of application, and strengthening, in which some productions are applied more often. New productions are formed by the conjunction or disjunction of existing productions.
Scope/Application:
ACT* can explain a wide variety of memory effects as well as account for higher order skills such as geometry proofs, programming and language learning (see Anderson, 1983; 1990). ACT* has been the basis for intelligent tutors (Anderson, Boyle, Farrell & Reiser, 1987).
Example:
One of the strengths of ACT is that it includes both proposition and procedural representation of knowledge as well as accounting for the use of goals and plans. For example, here is a production rule that could be used to convert declarative sentences into a question:
IF the goal is to question whether the proposition (LVrelation LVagent LVobject) is true THEN set as subgoals
1. to plan the communication (LVrelation LVagent LVobject)
2. to move the first word in the description of LVrelation to the beginning of the sentence
3. to execute the plan
This production rule could be used to convert the sentence: "The lawyer is buying the car." into the question: "Is the lawyer buying the car?"
Principles:
1. Identify the goal structure of the problem space.
2. Provide instruction in the context of problem-solving.
3. Provide immediate feedback on errors.
4. Minimize working memory load.
5. Adjust the "grain size" of instruction with learning to account for the knowledge compilation process.
6. Enable the student to approach the target skill by successive approximation.
References:
Anderson, J. (1976). Language, Memory and Thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Anderson, J. (1983). The Architecture of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Anderson, J. (1990). The Adaptive Character of Thought. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Anderson, J. (1993). Rules of the Mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. & Bower, G. (1973). Human Associative Memory. Washington, DC: Winston.
Anderson, J., Boyle, C., Farrell, R. & Reiser, B. (1987). Cognitive principles in the design of computer tutors. In P. Morris (ed.), Modeling Cognition. NY: John Wiley.

Note: Many of Anderson’s articles are available from his CMU home page at http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/people/ja

Cognitive Dissonance (L. Festinger)

Cognitive Dissonance (L. Festinger)

Overview:
According to cognitive dissonance theory, there is a tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions (i.e., beliefs, opinions). When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance. In the case of a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior, it is most likely that the attitude will change to accommodate the behavior.
Two factors affect the strength of the dissonance: the number of dissonant beliefs, and the importance attached to each belief. There are three ways to eliminate dissonance: (1) reduce the importance of the dissonant beliefs, (2) add more consonant beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs, or (3) change the dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent.
Dissonance occurs most often in situations where an individual must choose between two incompatible beliefs or actions. The greatest dissonance is created when the two alternatives are equally attractive. Furthermore, attitude change is more likely in the direction of less incentive since this results in lower dissonance. In this respect, dissonance theory is contradictory to most behavioral theories which would predict greater attitude change with increased incentive (i.e., reinforcement).

Scope/Application:
Dissonance theory applies to all situations involving attitude formation and change. It is especially relevant to decision-making and problem-solving.
Example:
Consider someone who buys an expensive car but discovers that it is not comfortable on long drives. Dissonance exists between their beliefs that they have bought a good car and that a good car should be comfortable. Dissonance could be eliminated by deciding that it does not matter since the car is mainly used for short trips (reducing the importance of the dissonant belief) or focusing on the cars strengths such as safety, appearance, handling (thereby adding more consonant beliefs). The dissonance could also be eliminated by getting rid of the car, but this behavior is a lot harder to achieve than changing beliefs.
Principles:
1. Dissonance results when an individual must choose between attitudes and behaviors that are contradictory.
2. Dissonance can be eliminated by reducing the importance of the conflicting beliefs, acquiring new beliefs that change the balance, or removing the conflicting attitude or behavior.

References:
Brehm, J. & Cohen, A. (1962). Explorations in Cognitive Dissonance. New York: Wiley.
Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959). Cognitive Consquences of Forced Compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203-210. [available at http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Festinger/]
Wickland, R. & Brehm, J. (1976). Perspectives on Cognitive Dissonance. NY: Halsted Press.

Relevant Web Sites:
Some relevant web sites to examine include:

http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Theory/dissonance/http://books.nap.edu/books/0309049784/html/99.html#pagetophttp://www.afirstlook.com/archive/cogdiss.cfm?