Universite de Paul Cezane, France
abstract
The purpose of the study was to explore (1) whether employees differing in emotional
intelligence level would differ in their emotional labour styles and (2) whether these
styles would mediate the impact of emotional labour on psychological distress. To test
the relationships, data was collected from employees of three public sector
organizations situated in Quetta, Pakistan. After establishing the psychometric
properties of the scales hypotheses were tested through Partial Least Squares (PLS) path
modelling algorithm. The results of this study indicated that (a) emotional intelligence
was positively and significantly related to deep acting; (b) surface acting was
positively and significantly related to psychological distress, and; (c) neither surface
acting nor deep acting mediated the relationship between emotional intelligence and
psychological distress.
Keywords: Emotional Labour, Emotional
Hochschild (1983) coined the term emotional labour and defined EL as 'the management of
feelings to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display to keep up with job
requirements. EL is sold for a wage and therefore has exchange value'. Since 1983, EL
has become an increasingly popular topic within the fields of psychology and management
(e.g., Ashforth & Tomiuk, 2000; Grandey, 2000; Grandey & Brauburger, 2002; Rafaeli &
Sutton, 1987; Zapf, 2002). In explanatory models of emotional labour (e.g., Brotheridge
& Lee, 2003; Grandey, 2000), surface (SA) and deep acting (DA) are the two most
frequently studied EL strategies. In DA, employee attempts to deeply modify internal
feelings to match the required organizational display rules. DA involves changing inner
feelings by altering something more than outward appearance. Rafaeli and Sutton (1987)
referred to this act as "faking in good faith" because employees' intent is to seem
authentic to the audience. In SA, employee modifies outward displays to be consistent
with display rules without shaping innerfeelings. In other words, employee hide felt
emotions or fake unfelt emotions. Hence, SA is termed as "faking in bad faith "(Rafaeli
& Sutton, 1987).
EL has been found to be associated with emotional intelligence (El) (Austin, Dore, &
O'Donovan, 2008; Giardini & Frese, 2006; Johnson, 2007; Johnson & Spector, 2007;
Mikolajczak, Menil, & Lumient, 2007; Totterdell & Holman, 2003). Mayer and Salovey
(1997) defined El as "the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion;
the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability
to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to
promote emotional and intellectual growth". There is accumulating evidence that El
abilities and traits influence numerous psychological adjustment variables such as
psychological distress and depression (e.g., Besharat, 2007; Dawda & Hart, 2000; Slaski
& Cartwright, 2002; Tsaousis & Nikolaou, 2005; Martinez-Pons, 1997). However, to our
knowledge, there is no study testing the extent to which EL strategies may mediate such
a connection. Theories of EL (e.g., Brotheridge & Lee, 2003; Diefendorff, Croyle, &
that EL strategies at work are key vehicles of personality and organizational influences
on numerous psychological adjustment variables (e.g., distress, anxiety, stress,
coping).
The main objective of this study was to build and test on prior research the theoretical
links between EL, El, and psychological distress. In general, (1) employees with higher
levels of El were expected to engage more in the less destructive form of EL (i.e., DA)
and; (2) EL strategies were expected to mediate the relationship between El and
psychological distress.
EL and El
Various, empirical studies have explored the association between El and EL strategies
(e.g., Austin et al., 2008; Giardini & Frese, 2006; Johnson, 2007; Johnson & Spector,
2007; Mikolajczak et al., 2007; Totterdell & Holman, 2003). Austin et al. (2008) found
no association between El and DA and negative relationship between El and SA. Giardini
and Frese (2006) found that emotional competence was a significant personal resource in
moderating associations between EL and job/health outcome. Johnson (2007) found a
significant positive relationship between El and DA. Johnson and Spector (2007) found
that El did not moderate the relationship between the EL strategies and personal
outcomes (well-being). Mikolajczak et al. (2007) found negative relationship between El
and DA. Thus, further investigation is needed to unravel associations between El and
different EL strategies.
While there are numerous models and measures of El, a number of El dimensions are common
across measures. In particular, self-emotion appraisal, others' emotional appraisal, the
regulation of emotion, and the use of emotion are dimensions that appear on almost every
El measure (e.g., Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Wong & Law, 2002).
Self-emotional appraisal relates to the individual's ability to understand their deep
emotions and be able to express these emotions naturally, whereas others' emotional
appraisal relates to peoples' ability to perceive and understand the emotions of those
people around them (Wong & Law, 2002). These abilities form the major aspects of
emotional work (Zapf et al., 2001). It is expected that emotionally intelligent
employees will deep.act more because they are better able to perceive the emotional
display rules cues within the work settings, have knowledge what people around them
feel, read people emotions accurately, and don't always maintain neutral expressions
(i.e., smiles when happy or pleasant) (Caruso & Salovey, 2004).
The regulation of emotion relates to the ability of people to regulate their emotions,
which enables them to recover rapidly from psychological distress (Wong & Law, 2002).
Emotionally Intelligent people effectively manage emotions in oneself and others by
moderating negative emotions and enhancing pleasant ones (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
Effective regulation of emotions allows an individual to induce and sustain a positive
affective state, which subsequently promotes helping behaviour and motivation (Joseph &
Newman, 2010). According to Butler et al. (2003), people with high ability to regulate
emotions are less likely to adopt the strategy of emotion suppression (i.e., SA) and
instead engage in a more effective strategy, such as cognitive appraisal. It is expected
that emotionally intelligent employees would be more prone toward employing the DA
strategy, because they can "psych up", calm down, or maintain a good mood as desirable
and can cheers others up, calm others down, or manage others feelings appropriately
(Caruso & Salovey, 2004).
Finally, the use of emotion relates to the ability of individuals to make use of their
emotions by directing them towards constructive activities and personal performance
(Wong & Law, 2002). Emotionally intelligent employees are better able to prioritize
thinking with the help of emotions, generate emotions as an aid to judgment, and
consider multiple points of view (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). It is expected that
emotionally intelligent people would engage themselves more in deep acting (than surface
acting) because by effectively using emotions they are able to swing their moods from
negative to positive in order to enhance persistence during difficult times (e.g.;
encountering a difficult customer) or stimulating creativity in solving difficult
problems (e.g., choosing among different atternatives for satisfying the difficult
customer) (Carmeli, 2003).
Hypothesis 1a. Individuals with high emotional intelligence will be less likely than to
surface act.
Hypothesis 1b: Individuals with high al intelligence will be more likely than to deep
act.
EL and Psychological Distress
SA(i.e., modification of facial expression) requires more attention and effort than does
DA (i.e., modification of inner feelings) Brotheridge & Lee, 2003; Brotheridge &
Grandey. 2002; Grandey, 2003). SA is positively related to emotional dissonance and
felt inauthenticity (Liu, Prati, Perrewe, & Ferris, 2008). Emotional dissonance is an
aversive psychological state in which one experiences a sense of discrepancy between
one's real self and expressed emotions. According to Wharton (1999), the major reason
for this discrepancy is that, the organizational display rules prevent employees from
interacting with customers based on spontaneous intuition, which compel employees to
replace and supress their own emotional response by an organizationally sanctioned
response.Because individuals are motivated to maintain or enhance a sense of oneness and
SA leads to inauthentic/fake emotional displays (increases emotional dissonance), it has
been argued that SA results in psychological distress (i.e., depression) (Liu et al.,
2008). Grandey (2003) asserts that, "DA minimizes emotional dissonance by bringing
feelings in line with expressions, so DA's relationship with emotional exhaustion should
be weaker than the relationship between SA and emotional exhaustion" (p. 89). Emotional
exhaustion (a key component of burnout) closely resembles traditional stress reactions
that are studied in occupational stress research, such as job-related depression and
anxiety (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001). Research has demonstrated
that SA is more positively and strongly related to emotional exhaustion than DA (Kruml &
Geddes, 2000; Totterdell & Hoiman, 2003).
Hypothesis 2: DA's relationship with psychological distress is weaker than the
relationship between SA and psychological distress.
In general, a given variable functions as a mediator to the extent that it accounts for
the relationship between the predictor and the criterion (Baron & Kenny, 1986). This
study predicts that DA and SA will mediate the relationship between El and psychological
distress.
Research suggests that El abilities and traits contribute to good physical and
psychological health (e.g., Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, & Mayer, 1999). For example,
people who do not recognize and understand their own emotions well are more prone to
depression and anxiety (Ciarrochi, Scott, Deane, & Heaven, 2003), substance use
disorders, eating disorders, and somatic complaints (Taylor, 2001; Conrad, Schilling,
Langenbuch, Haidl, & Liedtke, 2001). In a study conducted on clinically depressed
patients, Downey et al. (2008) found significant associations between severity of
depression and the El dimensions of Emotional Management (r= -0.56) and Emotional
Control (r = -0.62). In addition, various empirical studies have well documented the
significant negative relationship between overall El and psychological distress (e.g.,
Besharat, 2007; Tsaousis & Nikolaou, 2005).
As noted above, the primary value of understanding El lies in the prediction of certain
outcomes such as psychological distress. The previous discussion about the relationship
between EL strategies and psychological distress shows that EL strategies may affect the
level of psychological distress. Thus, El is related to psychological distress because
El affects emotional labour, in that El is a vital characteristic that enables an
individual to appropriately match the EL strategy (DA vs. SA) to the situation.
Consequently, the EL has a direct impact on the psychological distress level. The above
discussion suggests the hypothesis that EL will mediate the effects of El on
psychological distress.
Hypothesis 3a. SA will mediate the relationship between El and psychological distress
Hypothesis 3b: DA will mediate the relationship between El and psychological distress
Method
Participants:
The sample for this study consisted of 200 employees from three public sector
organizations situated in the province of Balochistan, Pakistan. 92 participants of the
total sampie (46 percent) were males and 108 (54 percent) were females. The mean age for
this sample was 31.48 years (SD = 8.10). All participants were treated in accordance
with the "Ethical principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct" (American
Psychological Association, 2002). Administration of the questionnaires was carried out
by post graduate students who acted as research assistants and no monetary incentive was
provided.
Measures:
Psychological distress. Psychological distress was measured by Chan's (2005) twenty item
scale. This scale measures psychological distress in terms of current non-psychotic
symptoms in the five symptom areas represented by scales of health concerns, sleep
problems, anxiety, dysphoria, and suicidal ideas. Respondents were requested to rate
each symptom statement on a 5-point scale (not at all to extremely) by comparing
themselves during the past 2 weeks with their 'usual selves'. Coefficients alphas for
the five dimensions were: health concerns: .75; sleep problems: .68; anxiety: .60;
dysphoria: .86; and suicidal ideas: .78.
Emotional Labour. SA was measured by three items adopted from Grandey's (2003) EL scale.
The sample items include, "I just pretend to have the emotions I need to display for my
job". DA was measured by three items adopted from Brotheridge and Lee (1998) EL scale.
The sample items include, "I make an effort to actually feel the emotions that l need to
display to others". The response scale has been seven point Likert-type scale ranging
from one (strongly disagree) to seven (strongly agree).
Emotional intelligence. Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS: Wong & Law,
2002), one of self-report measures based on Saloveyand Mayer's model (1990), taps
individuals' knowledge about their emotional abilities. Specifically, the WLEIS is a
measure of beliefs concerning self-emotional appraisal (ability to understand one's deep
emotions and be able to express these emotions naturally), others' emotional appraisal
(ability to perceive and understand the emotions of other people), regulation of emotion
(ability to regulate one's own emotions), and use of emotion (ability to make use of
one's emotions by directing them toward constructive activities and personal
performance). The response scale has been seven point Likert-type scale ranging from one
(strongly disagree) to seven (strongly agree).
Design and Analysis
Inspection of skewness and kurtosis statistics revealed non normality for most of the
items. Because of nonnormal data we resorted to Partial Least Squares (PLS) path
modelling algorithm. PLS is far less restrictive in its distributional assumptions and
sample size restrictions as compared to covariance-based structural equation modelling
(CBSEM) (Fornell & Cha, 1994).
In line with Henseler, Ringle, and Sinkovics (2009) recommendations, PLS model was
analyzed and interpreted in two stages: the measurement model and the structural model.
The measurement model relates to the relations between manifest variables (observed
items) and latent variables. The measurement model is tested by assessing the validity
and reliability of the items and constructs in the model. Individual ■rem reliability
was assessed by examining the
oadings of respective items on their respective latent construct (Hulland, 1999),
whereas Composite reliability (nc) (Werts, Linn, & Joreskog, 1974) and Cronbach's alpha
(1951) were used to assess the reliability of scales. Convergent and discriminant
validity of constructs were assessed via Fornell and Larcker's (1981) AVE test. An AVE
value greater than 0.50 indicates that a latent variable is able to explain more than
half of the variance of its indicators on average. E. ;ence of the discriminant validity
occurs when square root of the variance extracted estimation exceed the correlations
between the factors making each pair (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Regarding structural
model,
"r -cnparametric bootstrapping procedure using 1000 subsamples was performed to evaluate
the statistical significance of each path coefficient and to provide confidence
intervals for all parameter estimates.
3::3ness-of-fit (GoF) (Tenenhaus. Esposito Vinzi, Chatelin, & Lauro, 2005) was employed
to assess the overall fit of the model. GoF is normed between 0 and 1, where a higher
value represents better path model estimations.
Results
Measurement Model
The factor loadings from the final PLS measurement models are reported in Figure 1. PD5
(Sleep problem) due to factor loading of less than .50 was dropped from further
analysis. All remaining items loaded significantly (> .50) on their respective factors
which was an indication of indicator reliability. Composite reliability (hc) (Werts et
al., 1974) and Cronbach's alpha (1951) values for all scales exceeded the minimum
threshold level of 0.70 , thus indicating the reliability of all scales used in this
study (Table 1). Results revealed that the variance extracted for all factors exceeded
the minimum threshold value of 0.50 which was an indication of convergent validity of
all scales. Fornell and Larcker's (1981) test for discriminant validity
revealed relatively high variances extracted for each factor compared to the inter-scale
correlations, which was an indication of discriminant validity of four constructs (i.e.,
El, psychological distress, SA, and DA)
Structural Model
The results shown in Figure 1 supported hypothesis 1a and 1b: the coefficient of the
path from El to SAwas insignificant [a =-.03, t =0.21, p<.05, 95% CI:(-.26)-(.21)] and the coefficient of the path from El to DA was significant [a =.23, t= 3.16, p<,05, 95% CI: (.08) - (.39)]. Regarding hypothesis 2, SA had a significant direct impact on psychological distress [a =.30, f=5.56, p<001, 95% CI: (.20)-(.41), ^=.067] and the impact of DA on psychological distress was insignificant [3= .09, f =1.51, p>05, 95%
CI:(-.02) - (.22), F = .0101.
Exogenous variables in the model (i.e., DA, and SA) explained low amounts of variance of
psychological distress (R2 = .12). The value of R2may be decomposed in terms of the
multiple regression coefficients and correlations between the dependent variable and the
explanatory ones (Tenanhaus et al., 2005). This decomposition allows understanding the
contribution of each explanatory variable to the prediction of the dependent one. For
this model, SA was the most important variable in the prediction of psychological
distress, contributing to 82.5 %of the R2. On the contrary, DA contribution was only
16.33 % (far less than SA) (Table 2). The goodness-of-fit (GoF) (Tenanhaus et al., 2005)
index for the PLS model was 0.21, which indicated an acceptable data-model fit.
To test Hypothesis 3a and 3b proposing that emotional labour mediates the effect of El
on psychological distress, multiple mediator model (Preacher and Hayes, 2008) was tested
with case values of composite latent variables obtained in the PLS analysis. As can be
seen in Table 3, the 95 percent confidence intervals for both paths included zero,
therefore both SA and DA did not mediate the relationship between El and psychological
distress.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among EL, El, and
psychological distress in a sample of employees working in public sector organizations.
A specific objective was to determine the mediatory role of EL in the relationship
between El and psychological distress. The majority of proposed hypothesis received
considerable support, clearly demonstrating the relationships of the EL with EI and
psychological distress. This is the first empirical study (to my knowledge) in a South
Asian context to assess the relationship of EL strategies with other variables.
It was hypothesized that El would be differentially related to the EL strategies, that
is, emotionally intelligent employees would engage more in DA (modification of internal
feelings) than SA (faking or suppression of feelings). In line with previous studies
(Cote, 2005; Johnson, 2007) support was found for this hypothesis. This finding
indicates that El is a vital characteristic that enables an individual to appropriately
match the EL strategy to the situation (Feldman Barrrett, & Gross, 2001). Furthermore,
El enables people to deep act more that is, to understand people, be empathetic to their
circumstances, and internalizes their feelings. Conversely employees low on El are more
inclined to surface act, because they are unable to accurately perceive, appraise,
understand, and express emotions in order to comply with the demands of the situation as
well as to internalize others feelings. In other words, it s easy for employees low on
El to suppress or fake emotions than to generate positive emotions via perceiving,
understanding and regulating emotions (El abilities).
It was hypothesized that individuals performing SA would be more susceptible to
psychological distress than individuals T-; = :e: In DA. in line with previous studies
fe.g.r Johnson, 2007; Kruml & Geddes, 2000; "fctterdell & Holman, 2003) support was
foundforthis hypothesis. SAwas the most important variable in the prediction of
psychological distress, contributing to 82.25 % of the R2. This finding corroborates the
assertion that emotional dissonance (the difference between felt and expressed emotions)
is the direct outcome of SA and leads to emotional exhaustion (Grandey, 2003), which in
turn positively influences many negative outcomes such as psychological distress
(Panagopoulou, Kersbergen, & Maes, 2002). Furthermore, there was no relationship between
DA and psychological distress and this finding was consistent with previous findings
(Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2003). This finding suggest that employees who
engage themselves in DA are better able to avoid psychological distress by actively
changing their emotions (rather than just simply modifying outer expressions as in SA)
in order to comply with organizational display rules.
Finally no support was found for the mediatory role of EL in the relationship between El
and psychological distress, in order to gain further understanding of the situation,
second model was tested by adding an additional path from El to psychological distress.
The results indicated significant direct impact of El on psychological distress [a =
-.24, i = 3.10, p < .05, 95% CI: (-.36) - (-.09), f = .06], This shows that El directly
impacts psychological distress rather than through other mediatory variables.
Implications
The current study provides several implications for practice. It is evident from the
results of current study that in order to promote DA, organizations must find ways to
enhance employees' El level. This could be accomplished via cultivating a service-
oriented organizational climate, training and socialization of employees. Training
programs focusing on emotional regulation skills and DA techniques to cope with
emotional demands of work can help in reducing the deleterious effects of SA. Organizations must find ways to hire emotionally intelligence people against jobs that require substantial amounts of emotional work. Finally, employers can help employees to internalize their roles rather to fake the emotions (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993) by providing them adequate resources needed to meet the demands of the job.
Limitations
There are few limitations in this study that must be mentioned. First, the results are specific to organizations in one geographical area and may or may not be generalizable to other areas. Second, we used a cross-sectional design, which limited our ability to draw any causal references regarding the relationships found among variables in the study. The direction of causality (in cross-sectional studies) cannot be established and will have to be examined using longitudinal data. Finally, all respondents were full-time employees and these findings may not be applicable to part-time employees.
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Jahanvash Karim, Doctoral Student, des Entreprises d'Aix-en-Province, Ut Puyricard - BP 30063, France
Robert Weisz, PhD, Universite de Paul Cezane, Clos Guiot Puyricard - BP 30063, France
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