MENTAL RETARDATION
In the middle of the century (Garwood, 1983) the following six criteria was used to define Mental Retardation. 1. Social Incompetence, 2. Mental “Subnormality” 3. Developmental arrest, 4. a later developmental phenomena, 5. is of constitutional origin, or 6. incurability.
The American Association on Mental Retardation, defined, Mental Retardation as: substantial limitation in present functioning. It is characterized by significantly sub average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in 2 or more of the following adaptive skill areas: -Communication and self care –Home living and social skills –Community use and self-direction, - health and safety, - functional academics, - leisure, and –work.
Mental Retardation has been classified into four educational levels:
1. Educable/ Mildly Retarded: - IQs between 50 to 70 – They are not much difference from normal children in their physical characteristics and general health – they can develop language and social skills – they have little sensor motor impairment – they are delays of only 1 to 3 years – they are capable of learning fundamental academics and personal responsibilities.
2. Trainable/ Moderately Retarded:- IQs between 35 and 49 – their adaptive capacity seriously impaired –they are able to master self-care skills, basic language and functional academics – they can benefit from vocational and social training and, with supervision, and care for themselves – they can educate within segregated schools, training centers or private facilities.
3. Supportable / severely retarded/ dependent mentally retarded:- IQs between 20 and 34 – develop little or no speech and can learn basic hygienic skills.
4. “Life-support” mentally retarded/ profoundly retarded:- IQs less than 20 – they may capable of very limited self care and they require constant supervision in a very structured environment.
Different Types of Classification of Mental Retardation
Educational Intelligence Measure
Normal 85-115
Slow learner Borderline 70-84
75-89 Mild retardation 55-69
Educable Moderate retardation
50-74 40-54
Trainable Severe retardation
25-49 Wech, 20-35, Binet
Custodial Profound retardation
<25 <20 Binet
Causes of Mental Retardation
They are: 1. Organic/ Physiological causes 2. Cultural-Familial Retardation
1. Organic/ Physiological causes
A: Hereditary Factors
B: Hormonal and Metabolic conditions:-
-Phenylketonuria (PKU) [defect in enzyme activity]
-Cretinism (Hypothyrodism)
-Down’s Syndrome (abnormal number and patterns of chromosomes)
-Hydrocephaly:- It involves a fluid accumulation in the cranium which causes an enlargement of the head. (Large head)
-Microcephaly:- Small brain and small head
C: Prenatal Influences-radiation, viruses, vitamins, hormones and drugs
-mumps and chickenpox in early pregnancy
-heavy use of alcohol intake of pregnant women
-poor nutrition and birth injuries
-blood incompatibilities
D: Postnatal:
-physiological –organic problems (meningitis) –malnutrition
2. Cultural-Familial Causes:
-Complications during pregnancy, delivery and infancy – larger family size (5/more) –greater crowding –unskilled and semiskilled labor –severely punished for specific behaviour –environmental influences (neglect, malnutrition and mental disorder)
Identification, assessment and intervention
Identification:
They exhibit atypical physical features and serious delays in development soon after birth.
Difficulties are: [Infancy and Early childhood]
-Communication skills (speech and language), -self help skills – socialization (ability to interact with others)
Difficulties of childhood and early adolescence
-basic academic skills – reasoning and judgment – social skills to participate group activities and inter personal relationships
Late Adolescence and Adult life
-Vocational and social responsibilities and performance –Unable to understand teachers direction –show in all areas, academic, social emotional and physical – breaks rules of conduct or games –has short interest and attention span
Assessment-IQ Test
Infancy and Early Childhood:- -on sensor motor development –speech language and socialization skills
Late Childhood and Early Adulthood:- -Social skills –Academic skills –reasoning and judgment
Late adolescence and adulthood:- -vocational performance and social responsibility
Intervention-Education and training –good care and medical care
Familial support:- Attitudinal change –Adaptation training –counselling and proper guidance –work with professionals participate in rehabilitation program.
Educational Intervention:- -Placed in regular classes, special self contained classes, special day schools or institutional and adaptive behaviour –mildly retarded children placed in the regular class room, and to receive special help from resource room. –Moderately retarded children may learn in the regular class or special self contained classrooms. –Severely retarded children may placed in special classes, special schools or in group homes.
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Sunday, January 24, 2010
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT/ DISABILITY
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT/ DISABILITY
The visually impaired are broadly classified in two groups based on the degree of visual impairment. They are 1. The Partially (Weak) sighted or persons with low vision and the 2. The Blind. The visual measurement made by Shnellen Chart Notations of Visual Acuity. This chart consists of symbols (numbers/letters) that decrease in size. It read at distance of 20 feet. Visual acuity is measured by reading letters, numbers, or other symbols from chart 20 feet away. It is otherwise called “20/20 Vision”. Symbol size corresponds to the standard distance at which persons with normal vision can recognize the symbol.
There are both legal and educational definitions of visual impairment (Vergason, 1990)
--The legal definition points out the measurement of visual acuity, which is the ability to clearly distinguish forms or discrimination of details at a t specific distance.--
LEGAL DEFENITION:
A: Partially Sighted/ Weak Sighted
It is a condition in which one’s vision is seriously impaired, defined usually as having between 20/200 and 20/70 central visual acuity in the better eye, with correction.
B: Blind (Blindness)
It is a descriptive term referring to a lack of sufficient vision for the daily activities of life. Legally, it is defined as having central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correction, or having the peripheral vision concentrated to an extent in which the widest diameter of the visual field covers an angular distance no greater than 20 degree (Vergason, 1990; Heward and Orlansky, 1988)
EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION:
A: Partially Sighted Pupils:
These are pupils who by reason of impaired vision can’t follow the normal regime of ordinary schools without determent to their sight or to their educational development, but can be educated by special methods involving the use of sight. Such pupils use print materials but may need modifications such as enlarged print or use of low vision aids (Magnification) (Yesetdyke and Algozine, 1995)
B: Blind Pupils: Those are pupils who are totally without sight or have little vision, and who must be educated thorugh channels other than sight (for eg., using Braille or audio-tapes) [Yesseldyke and Algozine, 1995]
WHO CLASSIFICATION:
Normal Vision: --None 0.8 (6/7.5); slight: <0.8 (Normal)
Low vision: -- Moderate <0.3 (6/18); Severe <0.12 (6/48)
Blindness: -- Profound <0.05 (3/60); Near Total <0.02 (1/60)
TYPES OF AND CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
The following are the some types and causes of Visual Impairment.
1. Refractive Errors:- It is common eye problems. Eg., Myopia (Near sightedness); Hyperopia (farsightedness). The light rays that enter the ye do not fall exactly on the retina. When the eyeball is too long, the image falls in front of the retina and myopia results. They can see things at near to them and they can’t distinguish images at a distance. When the eyeball is too short, the images fall at the back of the retina and hyperopia occurs. They can see things clearly at various distance but requires the lens curvature. (eg. Concave & Convex)
2. Astigmatism: - refers to distorted or blurred vision caused by irregularities in the cornea or other surface of the eye; both distant and near objects may be out of focus.
3. Diabetic Retinopathy: Impaired vision due to hemorrhages and the growth of new blood vessels in the area of the retina.
4. Amblyopia/ lazy eye:- it is a dimness of vision in one eye, causing suppression of the weaker eye and use of stronger eye. This is due to eye muscle imbalance, refractive errors or other defects during infancy.
5. Cataract:- it is a condition of cloudiness in the lens of the eye that blocks the light necessary for seeing clearly. Vision loss depends on where the cataract located on the lens and how dense the clouding is. Treatment will be effective (surgery/ eye glass or contact lenses)
6. Glaucome:- it is a condition in which the normal fluid of the ye (aqueous humor) doesn’t drain properly. This results damage to the optic nerve and results in severe loss of slight or tunnel vision. This person can see only the center of the visual field. If detect early it can treat with controlling the pressure in the eye.
7. Retinitis Pigmentasa:- It is a hereditary condition caused by the progressive degeneration of the retina. Individual first loses peripheral vision, and gradually central vision decreases. Common symptoms indicated colour blindness and night blindness.
8. Retrolental Fibroplasa:- It is a loss of vision results in formation of sear tissue at the back of the lens of the eye. It is due to the concentration of oxygen administrated to the child at birth in incubator.
9. Trabismus:- It is condition in which the eye is turned inward or outward or squints because of weak or malfunctioning muscles. Treatment involves patching the stronger eye, corrective lenses and surgery.
10. Nystagmus: It is a condition results in involuntary, rapid, rhythmic eye movements, usually side to side continuously. It may cause severe visual problems, brain malfunctioning and inner ear problems.
Infectious Disease Trachoma:- It is a common among people of many countries who surroundings are unhygienic and who are crowded together in unhealthy environments wherein dirt abounds. It creates irritation and scaring of cornea which gradually leads to Visual Impairment.
Syphilis
Measles
Typhoid
Meningitis
Hypertension
Diabetes
Malnutrition
Vitamin A Deficiency
Injury and poison
Identification, Assessment and InterventionIdentification:
Frequently experiences red or inflamed eyes, infectious and rubs them.
Eye movements are jumpy and blinks frequently
Experiences difficulty – moving around, reading small print, and loosing place during reading; to identify small details in pictures.
Lacks interests in lights and visual stimuli
Rubs eyes frequently, has poor eye hand co-ordination.
Complaints headaches and eye infection frequently
Blurred or double vision
Holding reading material at an inappropriate distance
Eye discomfort – burning, itching or scratching.
Unusual facial expression and behaviour.
Assessment:
1. Screen whether the child can see light or not.
2. Visual acuity measurement: -Distance Acuity measurement –Near Vision Acuity Measurement [Hyvarinen (1997) presented procedures]
3. Visual Field: The field of vision of the area which can be see without any movement of the eye or head.
4. Color Vision: - Pseudoisochromatic chart eg: Ishihara plates (These plates are made up of colored dots in which are embedded the shapes or numerals. They are confusion tests of colour blindness. –City University Color Vision Test
5. Contrast Sensitivity:- Luminance is a measure of the amount of light emitted by a surface, and contract sensitivity in the terms applied to the eye’s ability to register differences in the luminance of objects, whether 2/3 are dimensionally presented.
6. Reading Acuity:-
Myvarinen (1997) suggested four measurement methods in Reading Acuity
Threshold: Measure the smallest text size that the child can read at a comfortable distance and the smallest eye that the child can read at a closer distance.
Optimal Size:- Measure how much larger the text needs to be allow fluent reading for a longer period of time.
Reading Speed: Measure how many words per minute and how many errors makes.
Reading Comprehension: Given a story passage and answer the important parts of the story.
Intervention:
It should do at home and school.
Home: - Creating loving and acceptance from family environment. – Develop positive interaction with child and encourage to talk and discuss – giving orientation to senses, listening, touching, smelling and tests – allow child to move freely – maintain close contact with teachers of the child and seek advice from professionals, parents of visually impaired children.
The School:- Reduce distance between teacher and students – Use auditory cues when referring to objects in the class room – seat students near chalk board or overhead projections, or give them freedom to move close to areas of instructions – reduce unnecessary noise to help focus on contact of instructional presentation.
The visually impaired are broadly classified in two groups based on the degree of visual impairment. They are 1. The Partially (Weak) sighted or persons with low vision and the 2. The Blind. The visual measurement made by Shnellen Chart Notations of Visual Acuity. This chart consists of symbols (numbers/letters) that decrease in size. It read at distance of 20 feet. Visual acuity is measured by reading letters, numbers, or other symbols from chart 20 feet away. It is otherwise called “20/20 Vision”. Symbol size corresponds to the standard distance at which persons with normal vision can recognize the symbol.
There are both legal and educational definitions of visual impairment (Vergason, 1990)
--The legal definition points out the measurement of visual acuity, which is the ability to clearly distinguish forms or discrimination of details at a t specific distance.--
LEGAL DEFENITION:
A: Partially Sighted/ Weak Sighted
It is a condition in which one’s vision is seriously impaired, defined usually as having between 20/200 and 20/70 central visual acuity in the better eye, with correction.
B: Blind (Blindness)
It is a descriptive term referring to a lack of sufficient vision for the daily activities of life. Legally, it is defined as having central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correction, or having the peripheral vision concentrated to an extent in which the widest diameter of the visual field covers an angular distance no greater than 20 degree (Vergason, 1990; Heward and Orlansky, 1988)
EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION:
A: Partially Sighted Pupils:
These are pupils who by reason of impaired vision can’t follow the normal regime of ordinary schools without determent to their sight or to their educational development, but can be educated by special methods involving the use of sight. Such pupils use print materials but may need modifications such as enlarged print or use of low vision aids (Magnification) (Yesetdyke and Algozine, 1995)
B: Blind Pupils: Those are pupils who are totally without sight or have little vision, and who must be educated thorugh channels other than sight (for eg., using Braille or audio-tapes) [Yesseldyke and Algozine, 1995]
WHO CLASSIFICATION:
Normal Vision: --None 0.8 (6/7.5); slight: <0.8 (Normal)
Low vision: -- Moderate <0.3 (6/18); Severe <0.12 (6/48)
Blindness: -- Profound <0.05 (3/60); Near Total <0.02 (1/60)
TYPES OF AND CAUSES OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
The following are the some types and causes of Visual Impairment.
1. Refractive Errors:- It is common eye problems. Eg., Myopia (Near sightedness); Hyperopia (farsightedness). The light rays that enter the ye do not fall exactly on the retina. When the eyeball is too long, the image falls in front of the retina and myopia results. They can see things at near to them and they can’t distinguish images at a distance. When the eyeball is too short, the images fall at the back of the retina and hyperopia occurs. They can see things clearly at various distance but requires the lens curvature. (eg. Concave & Convex)
2. Astigmatism: - refers to distorted or blurred vision caused by irregularities in the cornea or other surface of the eye; both distant and near objects may be out of focus.
3. Diabetic Retinopathy: Impaired vision due to hemorrhages and the growth of new blood vessels in the area of the retina.
4. Amblyopia/ lazy eye:- it is a dimness of vision in one eye, causing suppression of the weaker eye and use of stronger eye. This is due to eye muscle imbalance, refractive errors or other defects during infancy.
5. Cataract:- it is a condition of cloudiness in the lens of the eye that blocks the light necessary for seeing clearly. Vision loss depends on where the cataract located on the lens and how dense the clouding is. Treatment will be effective (surgery/ eye glass or contact lenses)
6. Glaucome:- it is a condition in which the normal fluid of the ye (aqueous humor) doesn’t drain properly. This results damage to the optic nerve and results in severe loss of slight or tunnel vision. This person can see only the center of the visual field. If detect early it can treat with controlling the pressure in the eye.
7. Retinitis Pigmentasa:- It is a hereditary condition caused by the progressive degeneration of the retina. Individual first loses peripheral vision, and gradually central vision decreases. Common symptoms indicated colour blindness and night blindness.
8. Retrolental Fibroplasa:- It is a loss of vision results in formation of sear tissue at the back of the lens of the eye. It is due to the concentration of oxygen administrated to the child at birth in incubator.
9. Trabismus:- It is condition in which the eye is turned inward or outward or squints because of weak or malfunctioning muscles. Treatment involves patching the stronger eye, corrective lenses and surgery.
10. Nystagmus: It is a condition results in involuntary, rapid, rhythmic eye movements, usually side to side continuously. It may cause severe visual problems, brain malfunctioning and inner ear problems.
Infectious Disease Trachoma:- It is a common among people of many countries who surroundings are unhygienic and who are crowded together in unhealthy environments wherein dirt abounds. It creates irritation and scaring of cornea which gradually leads to Visual Impairment.
Syphilis
Measles
Typhoid
Meningitis
Hypertension
Diabetes
Malnutrition
Vitamin A Deficiency
Injury and poison
Identification, Assessment and InterventionIdentification:
Frequently experiences red or inflamed eyes, infectious and rubs them.
Eye movements are jumpy and blinks frequently
Experiences difficulty – moving around, reading small print, and loosing place during reading; to identify small details in pictures.
Lacks interests in lights and visual stimuli
Rubs eyes frequently, has poor eye hand co-ordination.
Complaints headaches and eye infection frequently
Blurred or double vision
Holding reading material at an inappropriate distance
Eye discomfort – burning, itching or scratching.
Unusual facial expression and behaviour.
Assessment:
1. Screen whether the child can see light or not.
2. Visual acuity measurement: -Distance Acuity measurement –Near Vision Acuity Measurement [Hyvarinen (1997) presented procedures]
3. Visual Field: The field of vision of the area which can be see without any movement of the eye or head.
4. Color Vision: - Pseudoisochromatic chart eg: Ishihara plates (These plates are made up of colored dots in which are embedded the shapes or numerals. They are confusion tests of colour blindness. –City University Color Vision Test
5. Contrast Sensitivity:- Luminance is a measure of the amount of light emitted by a surface, and contract sensitivity in the terms applied to the eye’s ability to register differences in the luminance of objects, whether 2/3 are dimensionally presented.
6. Reading Acuity:-
Myvarinen (1997) suggested four measurement methods in Reading Acuity
Threshold: Measure the smallest text size that the child can read at a comfortable distance and the smallest eye that the child can read at a closer distance.
Optimal Size:- Measure how much larger the text needs to be allow fluent reading for a longer period of time.
Reading Speed: Measure how many words per minute and how many errors makes.
Reading Comprehension: Given a story passage and answer the important parts of the story.
Intervention:
It should do at home and school.
Home: - Creating loving and acceptance from family environment. – Develop positive interaction with child and encourage to talk and discuss – giving orientation to senses, listening, touching, smelling and tests – allow child to move freely – maintain close contact with teachers of the child and seek advice from professionals, parents of visually impaired children.
The School:- Reduce distance between teacher and students – Use auditory cues when referring to objects in the class room – seat students near chalk board or overhead projections, or give them freedom to move close to areas of instructions – reduce unnecessary noise to help focus on contact of instructional presentation.
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS IN RELATION WITH SPCIAL NEEDS:
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: It is following B.F. Skinner model and other behaviourist. It emphasis on (1) to provide highly structured learning environment and teaching materials. (2) The Interventions are likely to be increase or decrease the behaviour towards the goal. And this goal is carefully measured in frequency level in order to promote good education.
PSYCHOANALYTIC (PSYCHODYNAMIC) VIEW: It is based on the work of Sigmed Freud and other Psychoanalytic. (1) focus on unconscious conflicts (2) Motive of behaviour is not on behaviour itself but pathology of one’s personality. (3) So there is need for long term psychotherapy to resolve deep stated problems.
PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL APPROACH: It is combines the principles of teaching with treatment measured in terms of learning – through everyday functioning at school and at home.
ECOLOGICAL APPROACH: This approach is mainly focus on to improve interactions with family, school and community or neighborhood (rather than treatment)
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH: The behaviour is the result of interaction in a person’s physical and social environment, personal factors (thought, feelings, and perceptions), and the behaviour itself.
HUMANISTIC EDUCATION: Love and trust, in teaching and learning are emphasized; and children are encouraged to open and free individuals. It deals self direction, self fulfillment, and self evaluation.
BIOGENETIC APPROACH: Physiological interventions such as diet, medications, and biofeedback are used for the need of the children.
PSYCHOANALYTIC (PSYCHODYNAMIC) VIEW: It is based on the work of Sigmed Freud and other Psychoanalytic. (1) focus on unconscious conflicts (2) Motive of behaviour is not on behaviour itself but pathology of one’s personality. (3) So there is need for long term psychotherapy to resolve deep stated problems.
PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL APPROACH: It is combines the principles of teaching with treatment measured in terms of learning – through everyday functioning at school and at home.
ECOLOGICAL APPROACH: This approach is mainly focus on to improve interactions with family, school and community or neighborhood (rather than treatment)
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH: The behaviour is the result of interaction in a person’s physical and social environment, personal factors (thought, feelings, and perceptions), and the behaviour itself.
HUMANISTIC EDUCATION: Love and trust, in teaching and learning are emphasized; and children are encouraged to open and free individuals. It deals self direction, self fulfillment, and self evaluation.
BIOGENETIC APPROACH: Physiological interventions such as diet, medications, and biofeedback are used for the need of the children.
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION,Terminology
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
Important Terminology used:
SPECIAL NEEDS: are those with Learning Difficulties, Giftednedness, Socio-emotional OR behavioural problems, communication disorder, Mental disability (Mental Retardation), Sensory Impairments etc.
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION: deals with children / students are risk of repeating and dropping out, having Learning Difficulties are excluded from education.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: Promotes education for all. For this education there will not any discrimination such as age, sex, race, religion so on.
INTEGRATION: It emphasis on specific areas such as Functional Integration, - only for activities; Social Integration – for social activity/ contact, Physical Integration.
MAINSTREAMING: It is a concept of serving special needs children according to their needs and potential in regular school program rather than separate schools or special classes.
SEGREGATION: refers to placement of special needs children in separate educational program (They do not have the opportunity as regular school system)
INTERVENTION: It is a procedure for correcting unproductive/ undesired behaviour to enhance individual development.
REMEDIATION: is the process of correcting inappropriate behaviour skills.
REHABILITATION: It is training for special needs children through re-teaching, re-training, educational program.
HABILITATION: It is a process of providing support, training and education for the individual development and holistic development.
HANDICAP: It is a result of any condition or deviation, physical mental or emotional that inhibits/ prevents achievement, acceptance and participation in economic and social activities.
DISABILITY: is a physical, psychological/ neurological deviation that results from impairments for specific function.
IMPAIREMENTS: refers to injury, deficiency, loss of parts of body or that lessening functioning of the individual.
Important Terminology used:
SPECIAL NEEDS: are those with Learning Difficulties, Giftednedness, Socio-emotional OR behavioural problems, communication disorder, Mental disability (Mental Retardation), Sensory Impairments etc.
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION: deals with children / students are risk of repeating and dropping out, having Learning Difficulties are excluded from education.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: Promotes education for all. For this education there will not any discrimination such as age, sex, race, religion so on.
INTEGRATION: It emphasis on specific areas such as Functional Integration, - only for activities; Social Integration – for social activity/ contact, Physical Integration.
MAINSTREAMING: It is a concept of serving special needs children according to their needs and potential in regular school program rather than separate schools or special classes.
SEGREGATION: refers to placement of special needs children in separate educational program (They do not have the opportunity as regular school system)
INTERVENTION: It is a procedure for correcting unproductive/ undesired behaviour to enhance individual development.
REMEDIATION: is the process of correcting inappropriate behaviour skills.
REHABILITATION: It is training for special needs children through re-teaching, re-training, educational program.
HABILITATION: It is a process of providing support, training and education for the individual development and holistic development.
HANDICAP: It is a result of any condition or deviation, physical mental or emotional that inhibits/ prevents achievement, acceptance and participation in economic and social activities.
DISABILITY: is a physical, psychological/ neurological deviation that results from impairments for specific function.
IMPAIREMENTS: refers to injury, deficiency, loss of parts of body or that lessening functioning of the individual.
HEARING IMPAIRMENT/ DISABILITY
HEARING IMPAIRMENT/ DISABILITY
Definition:
Pasonella and Care (1981) defined Hearing Impairment as a generic term indicating a continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound, which includes the sub-classification of the Hard-of-hearing and Deaf.
A: Hard-of-hearing
A term describe persons with enough residual hearing, to use hearing (usually with hearing aid) as a primary modality for acquisition of language and in communication with others.
Hearing loss between 21 and 69 Db (decibels)
B: Deaf:
A term used to describe persons whose sense of hearing is non-functional for ordinary use in communication, with or without a hearing aid.
hearing loss above 70 dB
They often uses Sign Languages
The Different Categorization of deafness:-
Congenitally deaf (Born deaf) or Adventurously deaf (deafness acquired some times after birth)
Otherwise it can be classified as:
1. Pre-lingual deafness (present at birth/ before speech is developed)
2. Post-lingual deafness (occurring after the development of speech)
In Ethiopia, no documents which helps understand both (Hard-of-hearing and Deaf) terms.
it can be “idiots” – who can’t be educated to do not, not at all understand.
In Amharic term “donkoro”
Meaning in Amharic dictionary:-
An individual whose hearing organ doest not at all function; mentally handicapped; and who lacked the ability to understand any language (Kesate Berhan, 1951)
Types of Hearing Impairment
They are three types:
1. Conductive
2. Sensory-neural
3. Mixed hearing loss
1. Conductive Hearing Loss:
It reduced the intensity of sound reaching the inner ear, where the auditory nerve begins.
sound waves passing through external canal of the outer ear to the eardrum (the bone like structures) pass through inner ear.
It is any condition hindering the sequence of vibrations or preventing from reaching the auditory nerve may cause conduction loss (Bamford & Sounders, 1994, Gallahger, 1983)
2. Sensory-neural Impairment:
This involves damage to the fine structures in the inner ear or auditory nerve transmitting the impulse to the brain.
there is also central auditory disorder which results form damage to the central nervous system (CNS).
This loss results in problem with auditory comprehension and discrimination.
3. Mixed Hearing Loss:
It is occurrence of both conductive hearing loss and sensory-neural impairment.
for conductive hearing loss, can reduced by medical care with help of amplification of sound.
But not possible with sensory-neural impairment.
Causes of Hearing Impairment:
It is in terms of:
Birth period:- prenatal, perinatal and postnatal (Taylor, 1992)
Genetic & environmental factors
Chromosomal abnormalities, diseases, toxins etc. (Mittler, 1970)
Ear structure:- Outer, Middle and Inner (Gardwood, 1983)
Other Causes:
-Hereditary – pregnancy – Rh incompatibility – Prematurity – Trauma – High fever – Infection – Measles
Identification, assessment and Intervention:
1. Identification: The primary identification is usually done by parents, teachers and doctors.
The following sign and symptoms are present to determine Hearing Impairment (Tirussew, 1998)
- Inattention, restlessness and distraction
- Complaints of ear ache, or visible discharge from ear
- Giving inappropriate answers to questions; watching and following what other children do.
- Needing to sit near a sound and asking for more volume, on TV, tape or record player to be turn-up.
- Some irritability or typical aggressive outbursts; behaviour upsets in school.
- Failure to turn immediately when called by name unless other visible signals are given.
- Speech limited and use of gestures and nail-biting
- Best work in small group
Heward and Orlansky (1988) offered following auditory behaviours as guides in the early detection of Hearing Impairment:
1 Month:
- will jump in response to loud noises
- will begin to make gurgling sound
3 Months:
- will aware of voices
- may quite down to familiar voices
- awakens from sleep when there is a loud sound
6 Months:
- make vocal sound when alone
- turn head towards sound or when name is called
- vocalize when spoken to directly
9 Months:
- responses differently to a cheerful versus angry voices
- tries to copy the speech sounds of others
- turn head towards sound or when name is called
12 Months:
- can locate a sound sources by turning head (whether the sound is at the side, above or below ear level)
- recognizes own name
- uses single words correctly
- laughs spontaneously
- attempts imitation of sounds and words
- responses to music or singing
24 Months:
- has more than 50 words in vocabulary
- uses two words together
- playing with sound-making objects
- shows understanding of many phrases uses in a daily life.
2. Assessment:
1. Audiological (hearing) assessment:
- careful observation of main sign and symptoms of Hearing Loss
- study the consequences and causes of hearing loss with the help of parents
- Distraction test, introduces a sound source behind and to either side of the child. In response, the child may turning the head (Freeland, 1989).
- Co-operation testing, where test is done as a game
- Tuning fork assessment; (for sound amplitude)
- Audiometric Assessment
2. Communication assessment
3. Assessment of speech and language development
4. Psycho-educational assessment
5. Personality assessment
6. Ecological Assessment :- Micro system – Exo System – Meso System – Macro System
3. Intervention:
It involves doctors specialized in children’s ear, teachers of the deaf, speech therapist, psychologist, audiologist, and parent (Freeland, 1989)
The Family:
The communication with a deaf child, the parents should observe the following points:
1. Develop positive attitude toward their children
2. Speak as clearly as they can and realize an exaggeration of the mouth is not required. – They will develop tip-reading skill.
3. Consider the gestures and try to use them with hearing impairment
4. Try to have hearing aids for the hard-of-hearing.
5. Communicate in home sign language and talk to the deaf children as much as possible.
6. To give opportunity for deaf child to communicate in sign, pointing gestures and noises.
7. The family should develop different strategies
The School:
- Teaching small groups
- Enhance positive self concept
- Develop IEP (Individual Educational Program)
- Deal crisis calmly and effectively
- Reduces distance between teacher and student
- Speak slowly
- Reduce background noises
- use face-to-face contacts
- during class uses visual clues
- encourage independent activities, cooperative learning and social skills.
- Listening to what the child has to say and allowing time for reply.
Definition:
Pasonella and Care (1981) defined Hearing Impairment as a generic term indicating a continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound, which includes the sub-classification of the Hard-of-hearing and Deaf.
A: Hard-of-hearing
A term describe persons with enough residual hearing, to use hearing (usually with hearing aid) as a primary modality for acquisition of language and in communication with others.
Hearing loss between 21 and 69 Db (decibels)
B: Deaf:
A term used to describe persons whose sense of hearing is non-functional for ordinary use in communication, with or without a hearing aid.
hearing loss above 70 dB
They often uses Sign Languages
The Different Categorization of deafness:-
Congenitally deaf (Born deaf) or Adventurously deaf (deafness acquired some times after birth)
Otherwise it can be classified as:
1. Pre-lingual deafness (present at birth/ before speech is developed)
2. Post-lingual deafness (occurring after the development of speech)
In Ethiopia, no documents which helps understand both (Hard-of-hearing and Deaf) terms.
it can be “idiots” – who can’t be educated to do not, not at all understand.
In Amharic term “donkoro”
Meaning in Amharic dictionary:-
An individual whose hearing organ doest not at all function; mentally handicapped; and who lacked the ability to understand any language (Kesate Berhan, 1951)
Types of Hearing Impairment
They are three types:
1. Conductive
2. Sensory-neural
3. Mixed hearing loss
1. Conductive Hearing Loss:
It reduced the intensity of sound reaching the inner ear, where the auditory nerve begins.
sound waves passing through external canal of the outer ear to the eardrum (the bone like structures) pass through inner ear.
It is any condition hindering the sequence of vibrations or preventing from reaching the auditory nerve may cause conduction loss (Bamford & Sounders, 1994, Gallahger, 1983)
2. Sensory-neural Impairment:
This involves damage to the fine structures in the inner ear or auditory nerve transmitting the impulse to the brain.
there is also central auditory disorder which results form damage to the central nervous system (CNS).
This loss results in problem with auditory comprehension and discrimination.
3. Mixed Hearing Loss:
It is occurrence of both conductive hearing loss and sensory-neural impairment.
for conductive hearing loss, can reduced by medical care with help of amplification of sound.
But not possible with sensory-neural impairment.
Causes of Hearing Impairment:
It is in terms of:
Birth period:- prenatal, perinatal and postnatal (Taylor, 1992)
Genetic & environmental factors
Chromosomal abnormalities, diseases, toxins etc. (Mittler, 1970)
Ear structure:- Outer, Middle and Inner (Gardwood, 1983)
Other Causes:
-Hereditary – pregnancy – Rh incompatibility – Prematurity – Trauma – High fever – Infection – Measles
Identification, assessment and Intervention:
1. Identification: The primary identification is usually done by parents, teachers and doctors.
The following sign and symptoms are present to determine Hearing Impairment (Tirussew, 1998)
- Inattention, restlessness and distraction
- Complaints of ear ache, or visible discharge from ear
- Giving inappropriate answers to questions; watching and following what other children do.
- Needing to sit near a sound and asking for more volume, on TV, tape or record player to be turn-up.
- Some irritability or typical aggressive outbursts; behaviour upsets in school.
- Failure to turn immediately when called by name unless other visible signals are given.
- Speech limited and use of gestures and nail-biting
- Best work in small group
Heward and Orlansky (1988) offered following auditory behaviours as guides in the early detection of Hearing Impairment:
1 Month:
- will jump in response to loud noises
- will begin to make gurgling sound
3 Months:
- will aware of voices
- may quite down to familiar voices
- awakens from sleep when there is a loud sound
6 Months:
- make vocal sound when alone
- turn head towards sound or when name is called
- vocalize when spoken to directly
9 Months:
- responses differently to a cheerful versus angry voices
- tries to copy the speech sounds of others
- turn head towards sound or when name is called
12 Months:
- can locate a sound sources by turning head (whether the sound is at the side, above or below ear level)
- recognizes own name
- uses single words correctly
- laughs spontaneously
- attempts imitation of sounds and words
- responses to music or singing
24 Months:
- has more than 50 words in vocabulary
- uses two words together
- playing with sound-making objects
- shows understanding of many phrases uses in a daily life.
2. Assessment:
1. Audiological (hearing) assessment:
- careful observation of main sign and symptoms of Hearing Loss
- study the consequences and causes of hearing loss with the help of parents
- Distraction test, introduces a sound source behind and to either side of the child. In response, the child may turning the head (Freeland, 1989).
- Co-operation testing, where test is done as a game
- Tuning fork assessment; (for sound amplitude)
- Audiometric Assessment
2. Communication assessment
3. Assessment of speech and language development
4. Psycho-educational assessment
5. Personality assessment
6. Ecological Assessment :- Micro system – Exo System – Meso System – Macro System
3. Intervention:
It involves doctors specialized in children’s ear, teachers of the deaf, speech therapist, psychologist, audiologist, and parent (Freeland, 1989)
The Family:
The communication with a deaf child, the parents should observe the following points:
1. Develop positive attitude toward their children
2. Speak as clearly as they can and realize an exaggeration of the mouth is not required. – They will develop tip-reading skill.
3. Consider the gestures and try to use them with hearing impairment
4. Try to have hearing aids for the hard-of-hearing.
5. Communicate in home sign language and talk to the deaf children as much as possible.
6. To give opportunity for deaf child to communicate in sign, pointing gestures and noises.
7. The family should develop different strategies
The School:
- Teaching small groups
- Enhance positive self concept
- Develop IEP (Individual Educational Program)
- Deal crisis calmly and effectively
- Reduces distance between teacher and student
- Speak slowly
- Reduce background noises
- use face-to-face contacts
- during class uses visual clues
- encourage independent activities, cooperative learning and social skills.
- Listening to what the child has to say and allowing time for reply.
Saturday, November 15, 2008
ORIENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, HISTORY OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY, YOGA PSYCHOLOGY, BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY, The Psychology of Zen, Zazen, TAOISM and SUFISM, JAINISM,
ORIENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
V. George Mathew, Ph.D
Introduction
Oriental Psychology consists of the psychologically relevant materials taken from ancient writings in the orient. During the early part of the present century, modern psychology emphasized sensation and perception and Indian Psychology consisted of largely Indian theories of perception. Later on when modern psychology started studying cognition, materials relevant to that also were taken from ancient scriptures and other documents. Still later theories of emotion also were included.
Climate perhaps has an influence on the goals and values of people. In the West people have an external orientation, their temperament being characterized by practical aggressive traits. In the East people are philosophically inclined. There is an internal orientation and the main concern of life is with the ultimates. Consequently ancient oriental writings are largely concerning religious and philosophical issues. Self-enquiry using holistic intuitive methods did not fall within the traditional framework of empirical psychology and so most of oriental material was supposed to be irrelevant for Psychology. But with the development of humanistic approach and the psychology of consciousness, almost the whole of oriental writings has become very relevant.
In Western psychology, the reference point was the average person. The normal was the average. But in the orient the normal was the ideal, the perfect. Cultivation of the quality of subjective experience was the main concern. The aim of life was considered to be self-realization.
INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Motivation
The four asramas are Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa, the last one aiming at self-realization. The four motives are Kama, Artha, Dharma and Moksha, showing a rough correspondence to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The concept of Nishkama Karma (action with detachment) shows a similarity to Maslow's concept of metamotivation.
Personality
The three components of temperament are Thamasik (characterised by lethargy), Rajasik (characterised by high drive) and Sathwik characterized by balance and stability. There is also a transcendental qualityless (gunatheetha) state conducive to self-realisation.
Six personality types are recognised in Buddhism: Ragacharith (attached), Doshacharith (envy, aggression), Mohacharith (dull, idle), Buddhicharith (rational), Vithakkacharith (imaginative), and Sadvacharith (disciplined).
Jain typology called Laisya or colour type theory grades people according to the colouration of soul by karmic passions: Black, Blue, Grey, Pink, Red and White. All these theories recognise a gradation with respect to the state of self-realisation.
Personality development consists of growth toward unity. The Indian view is similar to the views of Rogers and Maslow which hypothesise spontaneous growth given right conditions. Guru occupies a very important place and parallels have been drawn between the guru-sishya relationship and counsellor- counsellee relationship. The main difference is that the Guru is a person with a high degree of self-awareness instead of any factual knowledge or skill of a counsellor and in the Indian system total personality change is emphasized more than specific behaviour change. The guru is a person with steady awareness. Many modern therapies like the Gestalt therapy emphasise Nowness, Actuality, Awareness and Wholeness and emphasise the personality of the counsellor and these therapies come close to the Indian model.
YOGA PSYCHOLOGY
Yoga means union. It is customarily used to denote methods used to attain superconsciousness. Several qualities like ability to discriminate the real from the unreal (viveka), disinterest and desire to know the truth (mumukshathava) are required in order to become a sadhaka (practitioner). The methods have been grouped into four.
1. Karma yoga
Every action has a reaction on the doer and the effect of actions remain in the person as his samskara. Good karma purifies the mind. Adler's method of developing social interest as a technique for personality development and personality development through improving social interactions (including counselling) can be related to karma yoga.
Actions can be classified into Nitya (daily routines), Kamya (desire-driven), Nishidha (sinful), Naimithika (occasional duties) and prayaschitha (compensatory). Another classification is into Sakama karma (desire driven) and Nishkama karma (action motivated only by a sense of duty, without any concern for the results. The concept of Nishkama Karma is close to Maslow's notion of Meta motivation (action stemming from fullness) as against deficiency motivation.
2. Bhakthi yoga
Bhakthi yoga is the yoga of emotions. It is controlled cultivation of higher emotions. It involves the awakening, actualising and controlling of libidinal forces. It draws out latent emotional potentiality, arouses experiencial capacities and merges suppressions, repressions and inhibitions.
Gods represent psychic forces. God is the symbol of one's own evolved self. It is Brahman (the absolute) relfected in Maya (the percieved reality). Through Bhakthi yoga you seek your own true identity. Each person is advised to select or conceive of a God suited to his personality requirements.
Bhakthas are of different types: The Artha prays to escape from suffering. The Jignasu does so out of curiosity. The Artharthi seeks material gain. The Jnani seeks deliverance. This classification is based on the aim of the Bhaktha.
Bhakthi or devotion has been broadly classified into Saguna Bhakthi (God with name & form) and Nirguna Bhakthi (God as the absolute consciousness). There is some agreement that Nirguna Bhakthi represents a higher type of Bhakthi than Saguna Bhakthi. In Dasya Bakthi, the bhaktha considers himself to be the servant of God. In Sakhya Bhakthi God is approached in a friendly manner. This has been further subdivided into relationships in which God is considered as a friend, a child or lover. In bridal mysticism, the sadhaka (regardless of whether he is male or female) considers himself a female and God as his lover. Love and hate are two sides of the same coin and there is Vaira Bhakthi in which God is contemplated as an enemy. Some sadhakas have mixed emotions; they shower praise as well as abuse on the chosen god.
The instruments of worship are the body (for puja, archana, vandana), word (for parayana, sravana, keerthana and japa) and mind (smarana). To a sadhaka following Bhakthi yoga, Bhakthi is a pleasurable experience and an end in itself. To him God is not just a device, but more real than any object of the senses.
The goal of Bhakthi is to replace fear by love.
3. Raja Yoga
This is the yoga of exercises and mind control. The term yoga is most often used to refer to Raja Yoga. This is also the type of yoga where a formal guru is considered essential. Usually there are initiation ceremonies to initiate a person into Raja yoga. Pathanjali's Yogasutra (1st century A.D.) is considered to be the best known treatise on yoga. It is also known as Astanga yoga or yoga with eight limbs as follows:
1. Yama (ethical condcut) - Ahimsa, Sathya, Astheya (non-stealing), brahmacharya and aparigraha (non-acceptance of gifts)
2. Niyama (practices and observances) - Soucha (cleanliness), Santhosha, Thapa (austerity), Swadhyaya (study) and Iswara Pranidhana (surrender to God)
3. Asana - yogic postures. Asanas, kriyas (stomach wash, etc.) and pranayama together are called Hata yoga.
4. Pranayama - breath control. This is supposed to purify the mind. This involves paying attention to breathing and regulating the duration of inhalation (Puraka), holding breath (Kumbhaka) and exhalation (Rechaka).
5. Prathyahara - Withdrawal of the mind from the objects of the senses.
6. Dharana - Concentration. Achieving one pointedness.
7. Dhyanam - meditation - achieving stillness of mind.
8. Samadhi - superconscious state. The person enjoysbliss, peace and freedom. There is lack of body consciousness and concern.
The different states of mind are Kshiptha (scattered), Moodha (slovenly and sleepy), Vikshiptha (oscillating), Ekagra (one pointed) and Nirudha (controlled). The different states of consciousness are Jagrath (waking), Swapna (dream), Sushupthi (deep sleep), Thuriam (superconscious) and Thuriatheetham (absolute). Samadhi itself is of three grades - Savikalpa samadhi involves retention of personal identity while in Nirvikalpa samadhi, there is the experience of pure consciousness, beyond time and space.
Sahaja samadhi is experience of samadhi within, all the time, even when the person interacts and behaves like an ordinary person. Ishta samadhi is samadhi at will. Bhavasamadhi is experienced by artists. Karma samadhi is experienced by karmayogis. Jada samadhi is not real samadhi; it is a state of numbness experienced by pranayama or meditation and often mistaken for real samadhi.
Kundalini Yoga:
It is supposed that consciousness has three sheaths - Physical body, astral body and causal body. There are seven psychic centres in the astral body along the spine. They are Muladhara (root of spine), Swadhistana (corresponding to sex organs, in spine), Manipuraka (corresponding to navel), Anahatha (corresponding to heart), Visudhi (corresponding to throat), Ajna (corresponding to pineal gland, at the base of the brain) and Sahasrara (slightly above the head). It is supposed that in ordinary persons, pschic energy lies dormant in the form of a coiled serpent in Muladhara chakra. By intense visualisation, the yogi attempts to arouse the kundalini sakthi and make it move along the spine upwards passing through the other chakras. Various siddhis are obtained when the kundalini reaches the different centres. The major siddhis are eight in number. Samadhi is experienced when the energy reaches sahasrara chakra. Many techniques of kundalini yoga involve pranayama. Kundalini is often visualised as moving up along with inhalation and it is visualised as coming down (in two different paths crossing each other at the chakras during exhalation.
Mantra Yoga:
In Mantra yoga, the yogi repeatedly utters a word or a few words constituting the mantra. The word may or may not have a meaning. It is supposed that thoughts have power and that the principle of autosuggestion makes for changes in the person who repeatedly utters a mantra with meaning. The mantra is a means to bring back the wandering mind and make it one-pointed. In yoga, the mantra is used to evoke higher states of consciousness by association, while in black magic the mantra is used to evoke psychic power. The commonly used mantras include Om, yogic aphorisms like Aham Brahamasmi and names of gods and goddesses. It is believed that silent utterance in the mind has more effect than loud utterance.
Tanthra Yoga:
This type of yoga flourished in north eastern India. Elements of manthra yoga and Kundalini yoga are included in Tanthra yoga. Some tanthric sects think that controlled indulgence of sense pleasures is a means to arouse Kundalini and that indulgence with awareness and with the aim of self-realisation enables the yogi to gradually transecend desires. Partial indulgence without full satisfaction is seen as a method of arousing and sublimating libidinal forces.
Meditation:
Meditation is the most important technique of Raja yoga. It is functioning in the passive, receptive mode, as against the active mode. It increases awareness and control and has some similarities with bio-feed back. It gradually reduces restlessness and reduces instinctual disturbances. Instincts cause mechanical, uncontrolled behaviour and meditating makes for more conscious behaviour.
A lot of modern scientific research has gone into the effects of meditation. Japanese scientists found that monks in meditation show alpha brain wave by reduction in heart rate, BP, respiratory rate, rate of oxygen consumption, muscular tension, electrical skin conductivity of the skin, lactate content in blood, etc. Meditators show increased perceptual ability, higher gains in IQ, creativity, academic achievement, adjustment, stress tolerance, work output and athletic performance. Meditating prisoners show better rehabilitation. A significant reduction in crime rate was observed in cities where a significant percentage of the people were meditating (Maharishi effect). Meditating drug addicts showed more improvement than control groups. Meditation techniques have been incorporated into many modern psychotherapeutic systems (like Autogenic Training of Schultz, Morita Therapy of Japan, and Zen Integration therapy).
4. Jnana Yoga
This is the yoga of the intellect. Some people think that each type of yoga is meant for people with a certain type of temperament while some others like Aurobindo speak of an integral yoga which combines all the four yogas as best. Still others think that there is a gradation. Initial preparation and readiness are required for the practice of any yoga, without which imbalances may develop. Karma yoga is for beginners and after achieving a degree of purity one becomes ripe for Bhakthi yoga when devotion spontanesously appears in the heart. Bhakthi yoga prepares one for practice of Raja yoga and mind control. Finally the person reaches the stage where the existential questions arise with force in his mind and he becomes a Jnana yogi. All intellectual effort, in a broad sense is Jnana yoga. Broadly conceived, all scientists and philosophers are Jnana yogis. Low living and high thinking go together and an austere life is part of Jnana yoga. It is said that if a person is genuinely curious about anything, that will in due course lead him to the same ultimate questions of existence the final answer to which lies in a transformation of personality leading to an alteration in consciousness. You can't know reality without becoming part of it.
The four stages of acquiring knowledge are sensory perception, testimony by somebody, reasoning and the last is insight. Sensory and intellectual knowledge is supposed to be indirect (Paroksha Jnana) while direct knowledge (Aparaoksha Jnana) is intuitive. Apara Vidya is wordly knowledge while truth is apprehended through Para vidya.
The first step in Jana yoga is developing a real urge to ralise the truth, or asking the one ultimate question: what is reality ? One has to discard wrong answers by reasoning - Neti, Neti (not this, not this). Intellectual blocks have to be surmounted. In the language of Advaitha, one has to experience Paramarthika reality, discarding Vyavaharika (empirical) and Prathibhasika (illusory). Dwaitha is unreal and the result of Maya. Truth is unitary; it is the Advaithic experience. The method is Sravana, Manana and Nididhyasa i.e., hearing, thinking and fitting what one has understood to one's actual experience. Finally one realises one's indentity with pure consciousness and the perceiver, perception and object of perception merge into one supreme experience.
BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY
Buddhism is said to be the most 'scientific' religion. It does not speak of a God. There is no soul, but only the continuation of experiences or karma or personality through different incarnations. The ultimate reality is described as vacuum or 'Sunyata'. The four noble truths are
Pain, Cause of pain (passion and lust), Annihilation of Pain (i.e., the possibility of ending pain or suffering), The eight fold path leading to cessation of pain.
V. George Mathew, Ph.D
Introduction
Oriental Psychology consists of the psychologically relevant materials taken from ancient writings in the orient. During the early part of the present century, modern psychology emphasized sensation and perception and Indian Psychology consisted of largely Indian theories of perception. Later on when modern psychology started studying cognition, materials relevant to that also were taken from ancient scriptures and other documents. Still later theories of emotion also were included.
Climate perhaps has an influence on the goals and values of people. In the West people have an external orientation, their temperament being characterized by practical aggressive traits. In the East people are philosophically inclined. There is an internal orientation and the main concern of life is with the ultimates. Consequently ancient oriental writings are largely concerning religious and philosophical issues. Self-enquiry using holistic intuitive methods did not fall within the traditional framework of empirical psychology and so most of oriental material was supposed to be irrelevant for Psychology. But with the development of humanistic approach and the psychology of consciousness, almost the whole of oriental writings has become very relevant.
In Western psychology, the reference point was the average person. The normal was the average. But in the orient the normal was the ideal, the perfect. Cultivation of the quality of subjective experience was the main concern. The aim of life was considered to be self-realization.
INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Motivation
The four asramas are Brahmacharya, Garhasthya, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa, the last one aiming at self-realization. The four motives are Kama, Artha, Dharma and Moksha, showing a rough correspondence to Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The concept of Nishkama Karma (action with detachment) shows a similarity to Maslow's concept of metamotivation.
Personality
The three components of temperament are Thamasik (characterised by lethargy), Rajasik (characterised by high drive) and Sathwik characterized by balance and stability. There is also a transcendental qualityless (gunatheetha) state conducive to self-realisation.
Six personality types are recognised in Buddhism: Ragacharith (attached), Doshacharith (envy, aggression), Mohacharith (dull, idle), Buddhicharith (rational), Vithakkacharith (imaginative), and Sadvacharith (disciplined).
Jain typology called Laisya or colour type theory grades people according to the colouration of soul by karmic passions: Black, Blue, Grey, Pink, Red and White. All these theories recognise a gradation with respect to the state of self-realisation.
Personality development consists of growth toward unity. The Indian view is similar to the views of Rogers and Maslow which hypothesise spontaneous growth given right conditions. Guru occupies a very important place and parallels have been drawn between the guru-sishya relationship and counsellor- counsellee relationship. The main difference is that the Guru is a person with a high degree of self-awareness instead of any factual knowledge or skill of a counsellor and in the Indian system total personality change is emphasized more than specific behaviour change. The guru is a person with steady awareness. Many modern therapies like the Gestalt therapy emphasise Nowness, Actuality, Awareness and Wholeness and emphasise the personality of the counsellor and these therapies come close to the Indian model.
YOGA PSYCHOLOGY
Yoga means union. It is customarily used to denote methods used to attain superconsciousness. Several qualities like ability to discriminate the real from the unreal (viveka), disinterest and desire to know the truth (mumukshathava) are required in order to become a sadhaka (practitioner). The methods have been grouped into four.
1. Karma yoga
Every action has a reaction on the doer and the effect of actions remain in the person as his samskara. Good karma purifies the mind. Adler's method of developing social interest as a technique for personality development and personality development through improving social interactions (including counselling) can be related to karma yoga.
Actions can be classified into Nitya (daily routines), Kamya (desire-driven), Nishidha (sinful), Naimithika (occasional duties) and prayaschitha (compensatory). Another classification is into Sakama karma (desire driven) and Nishkama karma (action motivated only by a sense of duty, without any concern for the results. The concept of Nishkama Karma is close to Maslow's notion of Meta motivation (action stemming from fullness) as against deficiency motivation.
2. Bhakthi yoga
Bhakthi yoga is the yoga of emotions. It is controlled cultivation of higher emotions. It involves the awakening, actualising and controlling of libidinal forces. It draws out latent emotional potentiality, arouses experiencial capacities and merges suppressions, repressions and inhibitions.
Gods represent psychic forces. God is the symbol of one's own evolved self. It is Brahman (the absolute) relfected in Maya (the percieved reality). Through Bhakthi yoga you seek your own true identity. Each person is advised to select or conceive of a God suited to his personality requirements.
Bhakthas are of different types: The Artha prays to escape from suffering. The Jignasu does so out of curiosity. The Artharthi seeks material gain. The Jnani seeks deliverance. This classification is based on the aim of the Bhaktha.
Bhakthi or devotion has been broadly classified into Saguna Bhakthi (God with name & form) and Nirguna Bhakthi (God as the absolute consciousness). There is some agreement that Nirguna Bhakthi represents a higher type of Bhakthi than Saguna Bhakthi. In Dasya Bakthi, the bhaktha considers himself to be the servant of God. In Sakhya Bhakthi God is approached in a friendly manner. This has been further subdivided into relationships in which God is considered as a friend, a child or lover. In bridal mysticism, the sadhaka (regardless of whether he is male or female) considers himself a female and God as his lover. Love and hate are two sides of the same coin and there is Vaira Bhakthi in which God is contemplated as an enemy. Some sadhakas have mixed emotions; they shower praise as well as abuse on the chosen god.
The instruments of worship are the body (for puja, archana, vandana), word (for parayana, sravana, keerthana and japa) and mind (smarana). To a sadhaka following Bhakthi yoga, Bhakthi is a pleasurable experience and an end in itself. To him God is not just a device, but more real than any object of the senses.
The goal of Bhakthi is to replace fear by love.
3. Raja Yoga
This is the yoga of exercises and mind control. The term yoga is most often used to refer to Raja Yoga. This is also the type of yoga where a formal guru is considered essential. Usually there are initiation ceremonies to initiate a person into Raja yoga. Pathanjali's Yogasutra (1st century A.D.) is considered to be the best known treatise on yoga. It is also known as Astanga yoga or yoga with eight limbs as follows:
1. Yama (ethical condcut) - Ahimsa, Sathya, Astheya (non-stealing), brahmacharya and aparigraha (non-acceptance of gifts)
2. Niyama (practices and observances) - Soucha (cleanliness), Santhosha, Thapa (austerity), Swadhyaya (study) and Iswara Pranidhana (surrender to God)
3. Asana - yogic postures. Asanas, kriyas (stomach wash, etc.) and pranayama together are called Hata yoga.
4. Pranayama - breath control. This is supposed to purify the mind. This involves paying attention to breathing and regulating the duration of inhalation (Puraka), holding breath (Kumbhaka) and exhalation (Rechaka).
5. Prathyahara - Withdrawal of the mind from the objects of the senses.
6. Dharana - Concentration. Achieving one pointedness.
7. Dhyanam - meditation - achieving stillness of mind.
8. Samadhi - superconscious state. The person enjoysbliss, peace and freedom. There is lack of body consciousness and concern.
The different states of mind are Kshiptha (scattered), Moodha (slovenly and sleepy), Vikshiptha (oscillating), Ekagra (one pointed) and Nirudha (controlled). The different states of consciousness are Jagrath (waking), Swapna (dream), Sushupthi (deep sleep), Thuriam (superconscious) and Thuriatheetham (absolute). Samadhi itself is of three grades - Savikalpa samadhi involves retention of personal identity while in Nirvikalpa samadhi, there is the experience of pure consciousness, beyond time and space.
Sahaja samadhi is experience of samadhi within, all the time, even when the person interacts and behaves like an ordinary person. Ishta samadhi is samadhi at will. Bhavasamadhi is experienced by artists. Karma samadhi is experienced by karmayogis. Jada samadhi is not real samadhi; it is a state of numbness experienced by pranayama or meditation and often mistaken for real samadhi.
Kundalini Yoga:
It is supposed that consciousness has three sheaths - Physical body, astral body and causal body. There are seven psychic centres in the astral body along the spine. They are Muladhara (root of spine), Swadhistana (corresponding to sex organs, in spine), Manipuraka (corresponding to navel), Anahatha (corresponding to heart), Visudhi (corresponding to throat), Ajna (corresponding to pineal gland, at the base of the brain) and Sahasrara (slightly above the head). It is supposed that in ordinary persons, pschic energy lies dormant in the form of a coiled serpent in Muladhara chakra. By intense visualisation, the yogi attempts to arouse the kundalini sakthi and make it move along the spine upwards passing through the other chakras. Various siddhis are obtained when the kundalini reaches the different centres. The major siddhis are eight in number. Samadhi is experienced when the energy reaches sahasrara chakra. Many techniques of kundalini yoga involve pranayama. Kundalini is often visualised as moving up along with inhalation and it is visualised as coming down (in two different paths crossing each other at the chakras during exhalation.
Mantra Yoga:
In Mantra yoga, the yogi repeatedly utters a word or a few words constituting the mantra. The word may or may not have a meaning. It is supposed that thoughts have power and that the principle of autosuggestion makes for changes in the person who repeatedly utters a mantra with meaning. The mantra is a means to bring back the wandering mind and make it one-pointed. In yoga, the mantra is used to evoke higher states of consciousness by association, while in black magic the mantra is used to evoke psychic power. The commonly used mantras include Om, yogic aphorisms like Aham Brahamasmi and names of gods and goddesses. It is believed that silent utterance in the mind has more effect than loud utterance.
Tanthra Yoga:
This type of yoga flourished in north eastern India. Elements of manthra yoga and Kundalini yoga are included in Tanthra yoga. Some tanthric sects think that controlled indulgence of sense pleasures is a means to arouse Kundalini and that indulgence with awareness and with the aim of self-realisation enables the yogi to gradually transecend desires. Partial indulgence without full satisfaction is seen as a method of arousing and sublimating libidinal forces.
Meditation:
Meditation is the most important technique of Raja yoga. It is functioning in the passive, receptive mode, as against the active mode. It increases awareness and control and has some similarities with bio-feed back. It gradually reduces restlessness and reduces instinctual disturbances. Instincts cause mechanical, uncontrolled behaviour and meditating makes for more conscious behaviour.
A lot of modern scientific research has gone into the effects of meditation. Japanese scientists found that monks in meditation show alpha brain wave by reduction in heart rate, BP, respiratory rate, rate of oxygen consumption, muscular tension, electrical skin conductivity of the skin, lactate content in blood, etc. Meditators show increased perceptual ability, higher gains in IQ, creativity, academic achievement, adjustment, stress tolerance, work output and athletic performance. Meditating prisoners show better rehabilitation. A significant reduction in crime rate was observed in cities where a significant percentage of the people were meditating (Maharishi effect). Meditating drug addicts showed more improvement than control groups. Meditation techniques have been incorporated into many modern psychotherapeutic systems (like Autogenic Training of Schultz, Morita Therapy of Japan, and Zen Integration therapy).
4. Jnana Yoga
This is the yoga of the intellect. Some people think that each type of yoga is meant for people with a certain type of temperament while some others like Aurobindo speak of an integral yoga which combines all the four yogas as best. Still others think that there is a gradation. Initial preparation and readiness are required for the practice of any yoga, without which imbalances may develop. Karma yoga is for beginners and after achieving a degree of purity one becomes ripe for Bhakthi yoga when devotion spontanesously appears in the heart. Bhakthi yoga prepares one for practice of Raja yoga and mind control. Finally the person reaches the stage where the existential questions arise with force in his mind and he becomes a Jnana yogi. All intellectual effort, in a broad sense is Jnana yoga. Broadly conceived, all scientists and philosophers are Jnana yogis. Low living and high thinking go together and an austere life is part of Jnana yoga. It is said that if a person is genuinely curious about anything, that will in due course lead him to the same ultimate questions of existence the final answer to which lies in a transformation of personality leading to an alteration in consciousness. You can't know reality without becoming part of it.
The four stages of acquiring knowledge are sensory perception, testimony by somebody, reasoning and the last is insight. Sensory and intellectual knowledge is supposed to be indirect (Paroksha Jnana) while direct knowledge (Aparaoksha Jnana) is intuitive. Apara Vidya is wordly knowledge while truth is apprehended through Para vidya.
The first step in Jana yoga is developing a real urge to ralise the truth, or asking the one ultimate question: what is reality ? One has to discard wrong answers by reasoning - Neti, Neti (not this, not this). Intellectual blocks have to be surmounted. In the language of Advaitha, one has to experience Paramarthika reality, discarding Vyavaharika (empirical) and Prathibhasika (illusory). Dwaitha is unreal and the result of Maya. Truth is unitary; it is the Advaithic experience. The method is Sravana, Manana and Nididhyasa i.e., hearing, thinking and fitting what one has understood to one's actual experience. Finally one realises one's indentity with pure consciousness and the perceiver, perception and object of perception merge into one supreme experience.
BUDDHIST PSYCHOLOGY
Buddhism is said to be the most 'scientific' religion. It does not speak of a God. There is no soul, but only the continuation of experiences or karma or personality through different incarnations. The ultimate reality is described as vacuum or 'Sunyata'. The four noble truths are
Pain, Cause of pain (passion and lust), Annihilation of Pain (i.e., the possibility of ending pain or suffering), The eight fold path leading to cessation of pain.
The eight fold path consists of right views, right intention, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort (mental exercises), right mindfulness (of body, mind and actions) and right meditation. The capacity for moral sense is inherited but it has to be developed by pracitce.
Desirelessness is the key to nirvana and the path is moderation, not total indulgence or complete self-denial. One has to become indifferent to pain and pleasure.
Buddhism does not emphasise the guru-sishya system. It encourages free enquiry. Buddha told his disciples not to accept anything because he said it, but only if it appeared rational. His last words were, "Do not seek refuge in anything external, be a refuge unto yourself". One should not have any belief or preconception. But one should pierce all preconceptions like a diamond needle (Vajracheda) to experience truth.
Theravada (thera=elders) follows the orignal teachings of Buddha, while Mahayana sects admit innovations.
The Psychology of Zen
Zen is a variety of Buddhism which evolved in Japan from 6 th century A.D. The word Zen is derived from Dhyan meaning meditation. A novice has to take a vow to save all beings which induces the right motivation to realise truth. Zen practice involves different elements.
1. Zazen:
This is sitting zen. One has to sit in the cross-legged posture and take a few deep breaths. One may sway from side to side two or three times to become flexible and not rigid. Then there are several options. Just sitting (which is a very difficult, but highly valued practice), observing the body (cultivation body awareness by observing the sensations from different parts of the body), Watching the mind (feelings and thoughts which arise), watching the breath, counting the breath, etc.
2. Mobile Zen:
This is cultivating mindfulness. Learn to enter fully into every action, with maximum awareness, and presence.
3. Koan Zen:
A koan is a riddle with no clear answer. No answer is expected. The attempt is to break the tyranny of the intellect and the ego. Absorption and penetration into the koan leads to a change in consciousness. Most koans are in the form of a question, some are in action form. Some koans were asked by a Zen master at a certain point during a conversation which helped the disciple who was ready for enlightenment, but was having some block to get over the block and experience sudden enlightenment. Many koans clear the egoistic feeling resulting from bookish erudition. When a certain disciple was asking hair-splitting questions endlessly, a Zen master said, "Have you taken your breakfast? ... Then wash you bowl." In a similar context another Zen master went on pouring tea into a cup even after tea was overflowing. Some other well-known koans are, "Use the spade in your empty hand", "Talk without using your tongue", "What is the sound of one hand clapping?"
Every block is considered to be an opportunity for learning (gateless gate).
Other Zen practices include Concentration or contemplation (on various shapes, qualities, chakras in the body,mandalas symmetric geometric forms), manthras, etc. For tension release and getting rid of inhibitions, disciples are made to utter a calm cry followed by vigorous shouting.
The results of Zen are flexibility, clarity, serenity, peace of mind, work-efficiency, personality integration, self-control and self-realisation. Kensho is experiencing self-transparency and the final enlightenment (satori) may come all on a sudden on gradually. In the final stage the realised person sees perfection and significance in every thing (suchness) and everything is seen as beautiful. He is self-sufficient and the only thing which motivates him to act is compassion.
JAINISM
Jain philosophy also differentiates cognitive knowledge and intuitive understanding. The path to realisation of the Jain system has three main steps: right faith, right knowledge and right conduct (consisting of satya, astheya, ahimsa, aparigraha and brahmacharya. While Buddhism emphasises moderation, Jainism emphasises meditation. Buddhism advocates partial non-violence in the sense that even eating meat is permitted under special circumstances.
TAOISM
Taoism is a religion which flourished in China. Tao means "Way" or" How". Tao cannot be defined, because there is nothing to compare it with. It can be known by becoming aware of what is happening through meditation. Tao does not behave, does nothing at all, yet everything gets done. Tao applies to everything. All things and events are vibratory, but Tao is not a vibratory event. Tao can be realised by becoming aware of what is happening with an open mind. Tao has no opposites and polarities, Tao is One. Tao is unity. Nothing comes before Tao, Nothing made Tao. Tao is the law of all things, the common ground of all creation. Knowing Tao is not a learning process, but a process of subtraction. The yin-yang figure illustrates the principle of oneness which contains apparent dichotomies (ex. like & dislike, gain & loss).
Taoism is considered as one of the oldest religions of the world. Lao Tsu who lived in 6th century B.C. codified Taoism. The main guideline for living is to actualise the principle of Wei Wu-Wei (Action Non-action) which means cultivating an attitude of deterministic acceptance, detachment and transcendence.
Taoism considers intellect as a block and the path to enlightenment is a process of subtraction and not learning. The Taoist way of life involves living in harmony with nature.
SUFISM
Sufism is the mystic sect of Islam. It origninated in Persia and spread to all countries having Muslims, including India. Mysticism in all religions share the same basic features and Sufism is no exception. At the philosophical level, the dictum "Anal Haq" (meaning the same as Aham Brahmasmi) expresses identification with pure consciousness. At the emotional level Sufi mystics symbolise themselves as the bride and God as the lover and dance and sing in ecstasy. In India some Sufis even wear female costumes on ceremonial occasions. Sufi contribution to devotional poetry and music has been considerable. Many Hindustani ragas and the Quawali type of singing originated in Sufism. A large collection of Sufi teaching stories are available. The Sufi dance involves very fast whirling movements. Like in many other religions, Sufi mystics were considered heretics and subjected to persecution by orthodox Muslims. Many Sufi mystics are credited with paranormal powers. One power sometimes supposedly demonstrated is making wounds on one's own body which spontaneously heal quickly.
HISTORY OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY
A SHORT HISTORY OF INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY
V. GEORGE MATHEW, Ph.D
The term Indian Psychology refered to the Psychologically relevant materials in ancient Indian thought. Usually this term does not cover modern developments in Psychology in India.
Modern Psychology at the beginning of the century emphasized sensation, perception and psychologists in India took out Indian theories of sensation and perception from the classics and created an Indian Psychology. For example Indian theories emphasise the notion that in perception the mind goes out through the senses and assumes the shape of the objects. In 1934, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Indian theories of perception. As soon as Western Psychologists started studying cognition, Indian Psychologists started looking for Indian theories of cognition. In 1958, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Cognition. Later on modern Psychology started emphasising emotions, and in 1981, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Emotions and the Will.
The major part of ancient Indian scriptures (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain) emphasise self-realization, samadhi or nirvana. After 1960 Humanistic Psychology emerged and Psychologists became interested in paranormal dimensions of growth. Maslow's theory of self-actualization and transcendental self-actualization established the link to the major part of ancient Indian theories and methods and almost the whole of ancient Indian writings became psychologically relevant. Psychology of Consciousness, Parapsychology, Psychology of Mysticism, Psychology of Religion and Transpersonal Psychology borrow extensively from Indian writings. The terms Oriental Psychology, Buddhist Psychology, Yoga Psychology , Jain Psychology, etc. are frequently found in modern psychological literature now. Many book lists in Psychology now include books on Yoga, Buddhism and Zen. There seems to be a paradigm shift in Western Psychology, a shift from the notion of mental disease and healing to personal growth, the reference point shifting from the statistical average or "normal" to the ideal or upper limits of man's potentiality.
The rudiments of the theory of consciousness can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization (6000 to 1500 B.C.). Artifacts of a man sitting in Padmasana have been obtained in excavations. The Swasthika symbol was used in Indus valley script. Buddhist thought and methods (6th century B.C.) are in line with the objective spirit of modern science and the law of parsimony of science and Buddhism can be easily incorporated into a scientific framework. The Psychological relevance of the four noble truths and eight-fold path and Sunya vada of Buddhism and Buddhist techniques of meditation are of considerable relevance in modern Psychology. Similarly Jain scriptures also are found to be relevant to Psychology in more than one way. The Vedas date from about 1500 B.C. However, Upanishads (appendices to the Vedas, which date from 600 B.C.) which describe the Vedanta philosophy and provide the theoretical foundation of Jnana Yoga are of more direct relevance to Psychology. The Bhagavat Gita gives a quintessence of Indian way of life and philosophy and it describes the four yogas, Karma, Bhakthi, Raja and Jnana. Several books have come on the psychological relevance of Gita. Maslow's theory of Meta-motivation is very similar to the concept of Nishkama karma outlined in the Gita.
Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga is a very systematic presentation of Raja yoga. Both Bhagavat Gita and Ashtanga Yoga are supposed to have been written around the turn of B.C. to A.D. Sankara's writings (8th century A.D.) on the different yogas as well as his Advaita philosophy are considered as classics in the area and are of great value to the Psychology of consciousness as well as personal growth. Modern interest in relaxation can be traced to studies on Savasana. Rising popularity of meditation practice links Psychology to Oriental religious practices and philosophy.
Indian literature on aspects of consciousness is broad, considering the classics and their commentaries. Mental states have been analyzed, classified and differentiated in detail. Similarly paranormal powers (siddhis) have been classified in detail. The process of personal growth and obstacles to growth have been examined thoroughly. There is a great deal of maturity resulting from long experience in these areas reflected in the writings. Indian theories of linguistics, social behavior, crime, etc. are all based on the holistic approach and the broad-based intuitive understanding of behavior in contradistinction to Western theories which are piece-meal, analytic and situation specific. The increasing importance given to the holistic approach and need for synthesis makes it possible to integrate modern Western Psychology with ancient Indian thoughts as well as methods.
The psychosomatic relationship was well known and salient in ancient times. The very first invocatory stanza of Ashtangahridaya (the main text in Ayurveda, written in 4th century A.D.) describes how emotions like desires lead to both physical and mental diseases.
Many attempts are being made to integrate ancient Indian Psychology with modern Western Psychology. More than 40 books have appeared in the field of Indian Psychology. There is a journal of Indian Psychology published from Andhra University which has an Institute of Yoga and Consciousness. At least five persons have developed personality inventories based on the Triguna theory (Satwa, Rajas and Tamas) of Kapila (Sankhya philosophy, 6th century B.C.)
V. GEORGE MATHEW, Ph.D
The term Indian Psychology refered to the Psychologically relevant materials in ancient Indian thought. Usually this term does not cover modern developments in Psychology in India.
Modern Psychology at the beginning of the century emphasized sensation, perception and psychologists in India took out Indian theories of sensation and perception from the classics and created an Indian Psychology. For example Indian theories emphasise the notion that in perception the mind goes out through the senses and assumes the shape of the objects. In 1934, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Indian theories of perception. As soon as Western Psychologists started studying cognition, Indian Psychologists started looking for Indian theories of cognition. In 1958, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Cognition. Later on modern Psychology started emphasising emotions, and in 1981, Jadunath Sinha wrote a book on Emotions and the Will.
The major part of ancient Indian scriptures (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain) emphasise self-realization, samadhi or nirvana. After 1960 Humanistic Psychology emerged and Psychologists became interested in paranormal dimensions of growth. Maslow's theory of self-actualization and transcendental self-actualization established the link to the major part of ancient Indian theories and methods and almost the whole of ancient Indian writings became psychologically relevant. Psychology of Consciousness, Parapsychology, Psychology of Mysticism, Psychology of Religion and Transpersonal Psychology borrow extensively from Indian writings. The terms Oriental Psychology, Buddhist Psychology, Yoga Psychology , Jain Psychology, etc. are frequently found in modern psychological literature now. Many book lists in Psychology now include books on Yoga, Buddhism and Zen. There seems to be a paradigm shift in Western Psychology, a shift from the notion of mental disease and healing to personal growth, the reference point shifting from the statistical average or "normal" to the ideal or upper limits of man's potentiality.
The rudiments of the theory of consciousness can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization (6000 to 1500 B.C.). Artifacts of a man sitting in Padmasana have been obtained in excavations. The Swasthika symbol was used in Indus valley script. Buddhist thought and methods (6th century B.C.) are in line with the objective spirit of modern science and the law of parsimony of science and Buddhism can be easily incorporated into a scientific framework. The Psychological relevance of the four noble truths and eight-fold path and Sunya vada of Buddhism and Buddhist techniques of meditation are of considerable relevance in modern Psychology. Similarly Jain scriptures also are found to be relevant to Psychology in more than one way. The Vedas date from about 1500 B.C. However, Upanishads (appendices to the Vedas, which date from 600 B.C.) which describe the Vedanta philosophy and provide the theoretical foundation of Jnana Yoga are of more direct relevance to Psychology. The Bhagavat Gita gives a quintessence of Indian way of life and philosophy and it describes the four yogas, Karma, Bhakthi, Raja and Jnana. Several books have come on the psychological relevance of Gita. Maslow's theory of Meta-motivation is very similar to the concept of Nishkama karma outlined in the Gita.
Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga is a very systematic presentation of Raja yoga. Both Bhagavat Gita and Ashtanga Yoga are supposed to have been written around the turn of B.C. to A.D. Sankara's writings (8th century A.D.) on the different yogas as well as his Advaita philosophy are considered as classics in the area and are of great value to the Psychology of consciousness as well as personal growth. Modern interest in relaxation can be traced to studies on Savasana. Rising popularity of meditation practice links Psychology to Oriental religious practices and philosophy.
Indian literature on aspects of consciousness is broad, considering the classics and their commentaries. Mental states have been analyzed, classified and differentiated in detail. Similarly paranormal powers (siddhis) have been classified in detail. The process of personal growth and obstacles to growth have been examined thoroughly. There is a great deal of maturity resulting from long experience in these areas reflected in the writings. Indian theories of linguistics, social behavior, crime, etc. are all based on the holistic approach and the broad-based intuitive understanding of behavior in contradistinction to Western theories which are piece-meal, analytic and situation specific. The increasing importance given to the holistic approach and need for synthesis makes it possible to integrate modern Western Psychology with ancient Indian thoughts as well as methods.
The psychosomatic relationship was well known and salient in ancient times. The very first invocatory stanza of Ashtangahridaya (the main text in Ayurveda, written in 4th century A.D.) describes how emotions like desires lead to both physical and mental diseases.
Many attempts are being made to integrate ancient Indian Psychology with modern Western Psychology. More than 40 books have appeared in the field of Indian Psychology. There is a journal of Indian Psychology published from Andhra University which has an Institute of Yoga and Consciousness. At least five persons have developed personality inventories based on the Triguna theory (Satwa, Rajas and Tamas) of Kapila (Sankhya philosophy, 6th century B.C.)
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