Problems solving- Definition
Early 1900s: Associationists explained problem-solving
in terms of finding and strengthening stimulus-response
patterns which would deliver solutions (or not):
reproductive solutions.
• 1940s: Gestalt psychologists studied productive
problem-solving, believed solution involved identifying the appropriate problem
structure for a problem.
• Neither approach had much place for cognitive
activity.
• Changed by work of Herbert Simon in 1970s.
According
to Mayer, problem solving is, "cognitive processing directed at
transforming a given situation into a goal situation when no obvious method of
solution is available to the problem solver. This definition suggests that
there are three major aspects to problem solving:
It
is purposeful (i.e., goal directed)
It
involves cognitive rather than automatic processes.
A
problem only exists when someone lacks the relevant knowledge to produce an
immediate solution. Thus, a problem for most people (e.g., a mathematical
calculation) may not be so for someone with relevant expertise (e.g., a
professional mathematician).
Problem
solving refers to the thinking we do in order to answer a complex question or
to figure out how to resolve an unfavorable situation.
Strategies
for arriving at solutions include: Trial and error, algorithm, heuristic, and
Insight.
Trial
and error involves trying various possible solutions, and if that fails, trying
others.
An
algorithm is a step by step strategy for solving a problem, methodically
leading to a specific solution.
A
heuristic is a short-cut, step-saving thinking strategy or principle which
generates a solution quickly (but possibly in error).
Insight
refers to a sudden realization, a leap forward in thinking, that leads to a
solution.
The
most basic definition is “A problem is any given situation that differs from a
desired goal”. This definition is very useful for discussing problem solving in
terms of evolutionary adaptation, as it allows to understand every aspect of
(human or animal) life as a problem. This includes issues like finding food in
harsh winters, remembering where you left your provisions, making decisions
about which way to go, learning, repeating and varying all kinds of complex
movements, and so on.
Problem-solving is a mental process that
involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of
problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves
the issue.
The
Problem-Solving Cycle
The
problem-solving cycle includes: problem identification, problem definition,
strategy formulation, organization of information, allocation of resources,
monitoring, and evaluation (shown in
Figure 11.2).
Following is a description of
each part of the problem-solving cycle.
1. Problem identification: Do we actually have a problem?
2. Problem definition and representation:
What exactly is our problem?
3. Strategy formulation: How can we solve
the problem? The strategy may involve analysis—breaking
down the whole of a complex problem into manageable elements.
Instead, or
perhaps in addition, it may involve the complementary process of synthesis—putting together various
elements to arrange them into something useful.
Another pair of
complementary strategies involves divergent
and convergent thinking. In divergent
thinking, you try to generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative
solutions to a problem. Once you have considered a variety of possibilities,
however, you must engage in convergent
thinking to narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single
best answer.
4. Organization
of information: How do the various pieces of information in the problem fit
together?
5. Resource
allocation: How much time, effort, money, etc., should I put into this problem?
6. Monitoring: Am I on track as I
proceed to solve the problem?
7. Evaluation:
Did I solve the problem correctly?
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