Motivation
·the factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behaviour
Instinct theory ·proposes that some aspects of human behaviour are innate - fixed-action patterns - unlearned, genetically coded responses to specific ‘releaser’ stimuli
Intrinsic theories
·the activity engaged in has its own intrinsic reward:
1.optimal arousal
2.cognitive dissonance
3.attitude-discrepant behaviour
4. need for Achievement (nAch)
External theories
1.drive reduction theory
Drive reduction theory (Mowrer)
·based on the principle of homeostasis - the tendency for organisms to keep physiological systems at a steady level ·according to drive reduction theory, an imbalance in homeostasis creates a need - a biological requirement for well-being ·the brain responds by creating a psychological state called drive - a feeling of arousal that stimulates an organism to restore the balance ·primary drives stem from biological needs, such as food or water, which are primary reinforcers ·we learn other drives, called secondary drives which, once learned, motivate us to act as if we have an unmet basic need – for example, anxiety can be learnt by generalization and conditioning
Arousal theory
·proposes that motivation is tied to the regulation of arousal - a general level of activation reflected in the state of several physiological systems ·normally arousal is lowest during deep sleep, and highest during panic or great excitement ·people perform best when arousal is moderate (Yerkes-Dodson theory)
·if arousal is high there is:
·improved performance on familiar tasks
·reduced performance on complex or new tasks, and inhibition of acquisition of new learning
·people are motivated to behave in ways that keep them at their own optimal level of arousal - it is higher for some people than others
·generally, people try to increase arousal when it is low, and vice versa
Incentive theory
·behaviour is guided by the lure of rewards (positive incentives) and the threat of punishment (negative incentives) ·cognitive factors influence expectations of the value of various rewards and the likelihood of attaining them
The need for achievement (Murray, 1938; McLelland, 1958)
·the motive to succeed is called need achievement
1.individuals with high achievement motivation strive for excellence, persist despite failures, and set challenging but realistic goals
2.parents with children who scored high on tests of achievement motivation tend to:
a)encourage the child to try difficult tasks, especially new ones
b)give praise and other rewards for success
c)encourage the child to find ways to succeed rather than merely complaining about failure
d)prompt the child to go on to the next, more difficult challenge
3.gender differences
a)often appear at a young age, apparently due to early learning experience
b)females are more likely than males to attribute failure on school-related tasks to lack of ability, and they tend to begin doing so at an early age
c)boys learn to see failure as due to lack of effort or some other situational factor
d)gender role stereotypes discourage achievement motivation in women
i)as a result, some women hide successes or act in ways that undermine their chance of success - a pattern called fear of success
4.workers are most satisfied and productive when they are:
a)encouraged to participate in decisions about how work should be done
b)given problems to solve, without being told how to solve them
c)taught more than one skill
d)given individual responsibility
e) given public recognition, not just money, for good performance
5.the most motivating jobs are those that offer:
a)clear and specific goals
b)a variety of tasks
c)individual responsibility
d)other intrinsic rewards
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
·Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that human behaviour is influenced by a hierarchy of five classes of needs, or motives ·needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by higher-level goals
1.Biological
a)food
b)water
c)oxygen
d)activity
e)sleep
2.Safety
a)being cared for as a child
b)secure income as an adult
3.Belongingness and love
a)being part of various social groups
b)participating in affectionate sexual and non-sexual relationships
4.Esteem
a)being respected as a useful, honourable individual
5.Self-actualization
a)exploring and enhancing relationships with others
b)following interests for intrinsic pleasures
c)concern with issues affecting all people, not just themselves
Central control of appetite
·three areas of the hypothalamus play primary roles in detecting and reacting to the blood’s signals about the need to eat ·activity in fibres passing through the ventromedial nucleus appear to tell an animal there is no need to eat ·if this region is stimulated, the animal stops eating ·however, if it is destroyed, the animal will eat ravenously ·the ventromedial nucleus seems to act as a ‘stop-eating’ centre ·the lateral hypothalamus appears to act as a ‘start-eating’ centre ·stimulation causes rats to eat in vast quantities, even if they have just eaten ·destruction causes them to stop eating almost entirely ·destruction of the lateral or ventromedial hypothalamus seems to alter the set point of body weight
·the factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behaviour
Instinct theory ·proposes that some aspects of human behaviour are innate - fixed-action patterns - unlearned, genetically coded responses to specific ‘releaser’ stimuli
Intrinsic theories
·the activity engaged in has its own intrinsic reward:
1.optimal arousal
2.cognitive dissonance
3.attitude-discrepant behaviour
4. need for Achievement (nAch)
External theories
1.drive reduction theory
Drive reduction theory (Mowrer)
·based on the principle of homeostasis - the tendency for organisms to keep physiological systems at a steady level ·according to drive reduction theory, an imbalance in homeostasis creates a need - a biological requirement for well-being ·the brain responds by creating a psychological state called drive - a feeling of arousal that stimulates an organism to restore the balance ·primary drives stem from biological needs, such as food or water, which are primary reinforcers ·we learn other drives, called secondary drives which, once learned, motivate us to act as if we have an unmet basic need – for example, anxiety can be learnt by generalization and conditioning
Arousal theory
·proposes that motivation is tied to the regulation of arousal - a general level of activation reflected in the state of several physiological systems ·normally arousal is lowest during deep sleep, and highest during panic or great excitement ·people perform best when arousal is moderate (Yerkes-Dodson theory)
·if arousal is high there is:
·improved performance on familiar tasks
·reduced performance on complex or new tasks, and inhibition of acquisition of new learning
·people are motivated to behave in ways that keep them at their own optimal level of arousal - it is higher for some people than others
·generally, people try to increase arousal when it is low, and vice versa
Incentive theory
·behaviour is guided by the lure of rewards (positive incentives) and the threat of punishment (negative incentives) ·cognitive factors influence expectations of the value of various rewards and the likelihood of attaining them
The need for achievement (Murray, 1938; McLelland, 1958)
·the motive to succeed is called need achievement
1.individuals with high achievement motivation strive for excellence, persist despite failures, and set challenging but realistic goals
2.parents with children who scored high on tests of achievement motivation tend to:
a)encourage the child to try difficult tasks, especially new ones
b)give praise and other rewards for success
c)encourage the child to find ways to succeed rather than merely complaining about failure
d)prompt the child to go on to the next, more difficult challenge
3.gender differences
a)often appear at a young age, apparently due to early learning experience
b)females are more likely than males to attribute failure on school-related tasks to lack of ability, and they tend to begin doing so at an early age
c)boys learn to see failure as due to lack of effort or some other situational factor
d)gender role stereotypes discourage achievement motivation in women
i)as a result, some women hide successes or act in ways that undermine their chance of success - a pattern called fear of success
4.workers are most satisfied and productive when they are:
a)encouraged to participate in decisions about how work should be done
b)given problems to solve, without being told how to solve them
c)taught more than one skill
d)given individual responsibility
e) given public recognition, not just money, for good performance
5.the most motivating jobs are those that offer:
a)clear and specific goals
b)a variety of tasks
c)individual responsibility
d)other intrinsic rewards
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
·Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that human behaviour is influenced by a hierarchy of five classes of needs, or motives ·needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by higher-level goals
1.Biological
a)food
b)water
c)oxygen
d)activity
e)sleep
2.Safety
a)being cared for as a child
b)secure income as an adult
3.Belongingness and love
a)being part of various social groups
b)participating in affectionate sexual and non-sexual relationships
4.Esteem
a)being respected as a useful, honourable individual
5.Self-actualization
a)exploring and enhancing relationships with others
b)following interests for intrinsic pleasures
c)concern with issues affecting all people, not just themselves
Central control of appetite
·three areas of the hypothalamus play primary roles in detecting and reacting to the blood’s signals about the need to eat ·activity in fibres passing through the ventromedial nucleus appear to tell an animal there is no need to eat ·if this region is stimulated, the animal stops eating ·however, if it is destroyed, the animal will eat ravenously ·the ventromedial nucleus seems to act as a ‘stop-eating’ centre ·the lateral hypothalamus appears to act as a ‘start-eating’ centre ·stimulation causes rats to eat in vast quantities, even if they have just eaten ·destruction causes them to stop eating almost entirely ·destruction of the lateral or ventromedial hypothalamus seems to alter the set point of body weight
·paraventricular nucleus (PVN):
·hungers for different types of food seem to be related to the action of different neurotransmitters on PVN neurons ·neuropeptide Y stimulates carbohydrate eating ·serotonin reduces carbohydrate consumption ·galanin motivates eating of high fat food ·enterostatin reduces fat consumption.
Emotion
·the subjective experience of emotion has several characteristics:
·emotion is transitory; it tends to have a clear beginning and end, and a relatively short duration. Moods, by contrast, tend to last longer ·emotional experience has valence, which means it is either positive or negative ·emotional experience is elicited partly by a cognitive appraisal of how a situation relates to your goals ·emotional experience alters thought processes, often by directing attention toward some things and away from others ·emotional experience elicits an action tendency, a motivation to behave in certain ways ·emotional experiences are passions that happen to you, usually without willful intent
The biology of emotion
·activity in the limbic system, especially the amygdala, is central to various aspects of emotion ·victims of a disease that destroys only the amygdala are unable to judge other people’s emotional state by looking at their facial expressions ·facial movements associated with emotions are governed by the extrapyramidal motor system, which depends on subcortical areas ·people with damage to the pyramidal system show normal facial expressions during genuine emotion, but cannot fake a smile ·people with damage to the extrapyramidal system can pose facial expressions at will, but remain straight-faced even when feeling joy or sadness ·the right hemisphere is activated during many displays of emotion - the experiencing of negative emotion, the perception of any emotion, and the facial expression of any emotion depend on the right hemisphere more than the left ·the experiencing of positive emotion may depend on the left frontal cortex ·depressed people display greater electrical activity in the right frontal cortex and perform more poorly on tasks that depend on the right hemisphere ·after suffering damage to the right, but not the left, hemisphere, people no longer laugh at jokes, even though they can understand the words, the logic, and the punch lines ·when people are asked to name the emotions shown in slides of facial expressions, blood flow increases in the right hemisphere more that the left
Primary emotions (Plutchik)
1.disgust
2.anger
3.anticipation
4.joy
5.acceptance
6.fear
7.surprise
8.sadness
Secondary emotions
·a combination of primary emotions:
1.love = joy + acceptance
2.submission = acceptance + fear
The James-Lange theory of emotion
·William James, 1890
·Carle Lange
·he reasoned that emotion is simply the result of experiencing a particular set of physiological responses ·holds that reflexive peripheral responses precede the subjective experience of emotion, and that each particular emotion is created by a particular pattern of physiological responses
Components of emotional experience
1.Sensation/ perception
a)“it’s a bear”
2.Cognitive interpretation
a)“that bear can kill me”
3.Activation of CNS and peripheral nervous system
4.Peripheral responses
a)increase in heart rate, change in facial expression
5.Perception of peripheral responses
6.Cognitive interpretation of peripheral responses
Evaluating the James-Lange theory
·research shows that certain emotional states are indeed associated with different patterns of autonomic changes ·different patterns of autonomic activity are closely tied to specific emotional facial expressions, and vice versa - subjects who create the facial expression associated with a particular emotion experience that emotion ·James’ theory implies that the experience of emotion would be blocked if a person were unable to detect physiological changes occurring in the body’s periphery ·spinal injury patients are able to experience the full range of emotion ·the facial feedback hypothesis maintains that involuntary facial movements provide sufficient peripheral information to drive emotional experience
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
·suggests that physiological responses are primary sources of emotion, but that cognitive interpretations of the eliciting situation are required to label the emotion, a process that depends on attribution ·attributing arousal from one situation to stimuli in another situation can produce transferred excitation, intensifying the emotion experienced in the second situation ·this transfer is most likely to occur when the overt signs of physiological arousal have subsided but the sympathetic nervous system is still active
Evaluating Schachter’s theory
·the theory predicts that emotional experience will be less intense if arousal is attributed to a nonemotional cause ·it also predicts that if arousal is artificially induced, emotion will be created if there is a situation to which the drug-induced arousal can reasonably be attributed
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
·sensory information about emotional situations first reaches the thalamus, which sends signals simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and to the cerebral cortex, where the emotion becomes conscious ·the brain directly creates the experience (of fear for example) while at the same time sending messages to the heart, lungs, and legs
Updating Cannon’s theory
·the thalamus is not the ‘seat’ of emotion, although it does participate in some aspects of emotional processing ·an updated version of the theory suggests that specific brain areas produce the feelings of pleasure or pain associated with emotion ·some pathways in the brain, such as that from the thalamus to the amygdala, allow strong emotions to occur before conscious thought can take place
Emotional expression
·as children grow, they learn an emotional culture - rules that govern what emotions are appropriate in what circumstances and what emotional expressions are allowed
·the same emotion may be communicated by different facial expressions in different cultures
Social referencing
·the process of letting another person’s emotional state guide our own behaviour is called social referencing
·this occurs especially in ambiguous situations
Stress
·stress is the negative emotional and physiological process that occurs as individuals try to adjust to or deal with environmental circumstances that disrupt, or threaten to disrupt, their daily functioning ·the environmental variables are called stressors ·some people are more strongly affected by stressors than others - due to mediating factors
The Diathesis-Stress Model
1.individual response stereotype – predisposition to respond physiologically to various situations
2.inadequate homeostatic restraints caused by stress-induced breakdown, genetic predisposition
·Important factors:
·situation
·perception of situation
·Less important:
·coping style
·values and attitudes
·learned responses
Stress responses
Physical Stress responses: The GAS ·suggested by Hans Selye (1956,1976) ·the sequence of physical responses to stress occurs in a consistent pattern and is triggered by the effort to adapt to any stressor ·he called this the general adaptation syndrome and it has three stages:
1.alarm reaction
a)controlled by sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
i)secretion of catecholamines >
ii)increased blood pressure
iii)enhanced muscle tension
iv)raised blood sugar
2.resistance
a)involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system
i)b endorphin - relieves pain
ii)ACTH - results in release of cortisol to release energy stores and fight inflammation
3.exhaustion
a)brings about signs of physical wear and tear
i)immunosuppression
ii)impaired cardiac function
b)Selye referred to illnesses that are caused or worsened by stressors as diseases of adaptation
Physiological Stress Responses
·increased titres to latent viruses (e.g. herpes)
·reduced activity of natural killer cells
·reduced lymphocyte toxicity
·reduced response of T-lymphocytes to mutagens
Emotional Stress Responses
·people are more likely to report the emotional effects of a stressor than the physical effects
·in most cases, emotional stress reactions subside soon after the stressors are gone
Cognitive Stress Responses
·e.g. reductions in concentration, ability to think clearly, or to remember accurately are common
·ruminative thinking - the recurring intrusion of thoughts about stressful events
·catastrophizing - dwelling on and overemphasizing the potential consequences of negative acts
·people under stress are more likely to cling to mental sets
·stress can also intensify functional fixedness, the tendency to use objects for only one purpose e.g. not using a telephone to break a window in a hotel fire
Behavioural Stress Responses
·strained facial expressions
·shaky voice
·tremors or spasms
·jumpiness
·changes in posture
·increase in the number of domestic violence reports in the months after Hurricane Andrew hit south Florida in 1992
Stress mediators
Predictability and Control
·knowing that a particular stressor might occur but being uncertain whether it will tends to increase the stressor’s impact (e.g. wives of MIAs in Vietnam had higher stress than wives of KIAs) ·predictable stressors tend to have less impact than those which are unpredictable ·if people believe that they can exert some control over stressors, they usually have less impact - simply believing a stressor is controllable, even if it isn’t, can reduce its impact ·people who feel they have no control over negative events appear prone to physical and psychological problems:
·increased cortisol ·increased catecholamines ·breast cancer patients who harbour a sense of helplessness have a lower survival rate than those with a greater sense of control
Coping Resources and Coping Methods
·John Mason, Marianne Frankenheimer – psychological appraisal of a stressful situation followed by coping, and/ or reappraisal ·coping resources include, for example, the money and time to deal with stressful events
·coping skills:
·Problem-focused coping
·confronting - “I stood my ground and fought for what I wanted”
·seeking social support - “I talked to someone to find out more about the situation”
·planful problem solving - “I made a plan of action and I followed it”
·Emotion-focused coping
·self-controlling - “I tried to keep my problems to myself”
·distancing - “I tried not to think about it too much”
·positive reappraisal - “I changed my mind about myself”
·accepting responsibility - “I realized that I had brought the problem on myself”
·escape/ avoidance (wishful thinking) - “I wished the situation would just go away, or be over with”
Social Support
·the friends and social contacts on whom you can depend on for support constitute your social support network ·the stress reducing effects of social support have been documented for:
·cancer
·crowding
·military combat
·natural disasters
·AIDS
·some researchers have concluded that having inadequate social support nearly doubles a person’s risk of dying from disease, suicide, or other causes ·disclosing, even anonymously, the stresses and traumas that one has experienced is associated with enhance immune functioning and decreased use of health services among students
Stress and Personality
·stress-related health problems are more common among people who:
·persist at mentally evading stressors
·perceive them as long-term, catastrophic threats they brought on themselves
·are pessimistic about their ability to overcome negative situations
·one component of the disease-resistant personality is dispositional optimism - the belief or expectation that things will work out positively
The Type A personality
·associated with Richard Rosenman and Milton Friedman
·can be detected as early as 9 years old
Features
·cynical hostility, characterized by:
·suspiciousness ·resentment ·frequent anger ·antagonism ·distrust of others ·competitiveness ·striving for achievement ·time urgency ·difficulty relaxing ·impatience ·anger
Complications
·Type A is associated with:
·increased systolic BP ·increased heart rate ·increased plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine ·increased plasma cortisol ·reduced occipital alpha activity on EEG ·cynical hostility is a risk factor for coronary heart disease, and MI ·post-MI, Type B personality is more likely to suffer a subsequent event (mechanism unclear)
Management
·behaviours can be changed by:
1.changing environmental demands
2.changing patients responses (cognitive and behavioural) by:
·learning new behaviours ·changing coping styles ·relaxation ·biofeedback
3.changing physiological concomitants
Coping with stress
Stages in coping with stress
1.Assessment
·identify the sources and effects of stress
2.Goal Setting
·list the stressors and stress responses to be addressed
·designate which stressors are and are not changeable
3.Planning
·list the specific steps to be taken to cope with stress
4. Action
·implement coping plans
5.Evaluation
·determine the changes in stressors and stress responses that have occurred as a result of coping methods
6.Adjustment
·alter coping methods to improve results, if necessary
Developing coping strategies
1.Cognitive coping strategies
·cognitive coping strategies can replace catastrophic thinking with thoughts in which the stressors are seen as challenges rather than threats - this process is called cognitive restructuring
2.Emotional coping strategies
·seeking and obtaining social support
·getting advice and feedback
3.Behavioural strategies
·implementing a time-management plan
·making life changes to eliminate stressors
4.Physical strategies
·progressive relaxation training
·exercise
·biofeedback
·meditation
Coping mechanisms
1.concentration only on the current task (denial)
2.empathy (projection)
3.logical analysis (rationalization)
4.objectivity (isolation)
5.playfulness (aggression)
6.substitution of other thoughts (reaction formation)
7.suppression of other feelings (repression)
·hungers for different types of food seem to be related to the action of different neurotransmitters on PVN neurons ·neuropeptide Y stimulates carbohydrate eating ·serotonin reduces carbohydrate consumption ·galanin motivates eating of high fat food ·enterostatin reduces fat consumption.
Emotion
·the subjective experience of emotion has several characteristics:
·emotion is transitory; it tends to have a clear beginning and end, and a relatively short duration. Moods, by contrast, tend to last longer ·emotional experience has valence, which means it is either positive or negative ·emotional experience is elicited partly by a cognitive appraisal of how a situation relates to your goals ·emotional experience alters thought processes, often by directing attention toward some things and away from others ·emotional experience elicits an action tendency, a motivation to behave in certain ways ·emotional experiences are passions that happen to you, usually without willful intent
The biology of emotion
·activity in the limbic system, especially the amygdala, is central to various aspects of emotion ·victims of a disease that destroys only the amygdala are unable to judge other people’s emotional state by looking at their facial expressions ·facial movements associated with emotions are governed by the extrapyramidal motor system, which depends on subcortical areas ·people with damage to the pyramidal system show normal facial expressions during genuine emotion, but cannot fake a smile ·people with damage to the extrapyramidal system can pose facial expressions at will, but remain straight-faced even when feeling joy or sadness ·the right hemisphere is activated during many displays of emotion - the experiencing of negative emotion, the perception of any emotion, and the facial expression of any emotion depend on the right hemisphere more than the left ·the experiencing of positive emotion may depend on the left frontal cortex ·depressed people display greater electrical activity in the right frontal cortex and perform more poorly on tasks that depend on the right hemisphere ·after suffering damage to the right, but not the left, hemisphere, people no longer laugh at jokes, even though they can understand the words, the logic, and the punch lines ·when people are asked to name the emotions shown in slides of facial expressions, blood flow increases in the right hemisphere more that the left
Primary emotions (Plutchik)
1.disgust
2.anger
3.anticipation
4.joy
5.acceptance
6.fear
7.surprise
8.sadness
Secondary emotions
·a combination of primary emotions:
1.love = joy + acceptance
2.submission = acceptance + fear
The James-Lange theory of emotion
·William James, 1890
·Carle Lange
·he reasoned that emotion is simply the result of experiencing a particular set of physiological responses ·holds that reflexive peripheral responses precede the subjective experience of emotion, and that each particular emotion is created by a particular pattern of physiological responses
Components of emotional experience
1.Sensation/ perception
a)“it’s a bear”
2.Cognitive interpretation
a)“that bear can kill me”
3.Activation of CNS and peripheral nervous system
4.Peripheral responses
a)increase in heart rate, change in facial expression
5.Perception of peripheral responses
6.Cognitive interpretation of peripheral responses
Evaluating the James-Lange theory
·research shows that certain emotional states are indeed associated with different patterns of autonomic changes ·different patterns of autonomic activity are closely tied to specific emotional facial expressions, and vice versa - subjects who create the facial expression associated with a particular emotion experience that emotion ·James’ theory implies that the experience of emotion would be blocked if a person were unable to detect physiological changes occurring in the body’s periphery ·spinal injury patients are able to experience the full range of emotion ·the facial feedback hypothesis maintains that involuntary facial movements provide sufficient peripheral information to drive emotional experience
Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
·suggests that physiological responses are primary sources of emotion, but that cognitive interpretations of the eliciting situation are required to label the emotion, a process that depends on attribution ·attributing arousal from one situation to stimuli in another situation can produce transferred excitation, intensifying the emotion experienced in the second situation ·this transfer is most likely to occur when the overt signs of physiological arousal have subsided but the sympathetic nervous system is still active
Evaluating Schachter’s theory
·the theory predicts that emotional experience will be less intense if arousal is attributed to a nonemotional cause ·it also predicts that if arousal is artificially induced, emotion will be created if there is a situation to which the drug-induced arousal can reasonably be attributed
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
·sensory information about emotional situations first reaches the thalamus, which sends signals simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and to the cerebral cortex, where the emotion becomes conscious ·the brain directly creates the experience (of fear for example) while at the same time sending messages to the heart, lungs, and legs
Updating Cannon’s theory
·the thalamus is not the ‘seat’ of emotion, although it does participate in some aspects of emotional processing ·an updated version of the theory suggests that specific brain areas produce the feelings of pleasure or pain associated with emotion ·some pathways in the brain, such as that from the thalamus to the amygdala, allow strong emotions to occur before conscious thought can take place
Emotional expression
·as children grow, they learn an emotional culture - rules that govern what emotions are appropriate in what circumstances and what emotional expressions are allowed
·the same emotion may be communicated by different facial expressions in different cultures
Social referencing
·the process of letting another person’s emotional state guide our own behaviour is called social referencing
·this occurs especially in ambiguous situations
Stress
·stress is the negative emotional and physiological process that occurs as individuals try to adjust to or deal with environmental circumstances that disrupt, or threaten to disrupt, their daily functioning ·the environmental variables are called stressors ·some people are more strongly affected by stressors than others - due to mediating factors
The Diathesis-Stress Model
1.individual response stereotype – predisposition to respond physiologically to various situations
2.inadequate homeostatic restraints caused by stress-induced breakdown, genetic predisposition
·Important factors:
·situation
·perception of situation
·Less important:
·coping style
·values and attitudes
·learned responses
Stress responses
Physical Stress responses: The GAS ·suggested by Hans Selye (1956,1976) ·the sequence of physical responses to stress occurs in a consistent pattern and is triggered by the effort to adapt to any stressor ·he called this the general adaptation syndrome and it has three stages:
1.alarm reaction
a)controlled by sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
i)secretion of catecholamines >
ii)increased blood pressure
iii)enhanced muscle tension
iv)raised blood sugar
2.resistance
a)involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) system
i)b endorphin - relieves pain
ii)ACTH - results in release of cortisol to release energy stores and fight inflammation
3.exhaustion
a)brings about signs of physical wear and tear
i)immunosuppression
ii)impaired cardiac function
b)Selye referred to illnesses that are caused or worsened by stressors as diseases of adaptation
Physiological Stress Responses
·increased titres to latent viruses (e.g. herpes)
·reduced activity of natural killer cells
·reduced lymphocyte toxicity
·reduced response of T-lymphocytes to mutagens
Emotional Stress Responses
·people are more likely to report the emotional effects of a stressor than the physical effects
·in most cases, emotional stress reactions subside soon after the stressors are gone
Cognitive Stress Responses
·e.g. reductions in concentration, ability to think clearly, or to remember accurately are common
·ruminative thinking - the recurring intrusion of thoughts about stressful events
·catastrophizing - dwelling on and overemphasizing the potential consequences of negative acts
·people under stress are more likely to cling to mental sets
·stress can also intensify functional fixedness, the tendency to use objects for only one purpose e.g. not using a telephone to break a window in a hotel fire
Behavioural Stress Responses
·strained facial expressions
·shaky voice
·tremors or spasms
·jumpiness
·changes in posture
·increase in the number of domestic violence reports in the months after Hurricane Andrew hit south Florida in 1992
Stress mediators
Predictability and Control
·knowing that a particular stressor might occur but being uncertain whether it will tends to increase the stressor’s impact (e.g. wives of MIAs in Vietnam had higher stress than wives of KIAs) ·predictable stressors tend to have less impact than those which are unpredictable ·if people believe that they can exert some control over stressors, they usually have less impact - simply believing a stressor is controllable, even if it isn’t, can reduce its impact ·people who feel they have no control over negative events appear prone to physical and psychological problems:
·increased cortisol ·increased catecholamines ·breast cancer patients who harbour a sense of helplessness have a lower survival rate than those with a greater sense of control
Coping Resources and Coping Methods
·John Mason, Marianne Frankenheimer – psychological appraisal of a stressful situation followed by coping, and/ or reappraisal ·coping resources include, for example, the money and time to deal with stressful events
·coping skills:
·Problem-focused coping
·confronting - “I stood my ground and fought for what I wanted”
·seeking social support - “I talked to someone to find out more about the situation”
·planful problem solving - “I made a plan of action and I followed it”
·Emotion-focused coping
·self-controlling - “I tried to keep my problems to myself”
·distancing - “I tried not to think about it too much”
·positive reappraisal - “I changed my mind about myself”
·accepting responsibility - “I realized that I had brought the problem on myself”
·escape/ avoidance (wishful thinking) - “I wished the situation would just go away, or be over with”
Social Support
·the friends and social contacts on whom you can depend on for support constitute your social support network ·the stress reducing effects of social support have been documented for:
·cancer
·crowding
·military combat
·natural disasters
·AIDS
·some researchers have concluded that having inadequate social support nearly doubles a person’s risk of dying from disease, suicide, or other causes ·disclosing, even anonymously, the stresses and traumas that one has experienced is associated with enhance immune functioning and decreased use of health services among students
Stress and Personality
·stress-related health problems are more common among people who:
·persist at mentally evading stressors
·perceive them as long-term, catastrophic threats they brought on themselves
·are pessimistic about their ability to overcome negative situations
·one component of the disease-resistant personality is dispositional optimism - the belief or expectation that things will work out positively
The Type A personality
·associated with Richard Rosenman and Milton Friedman
·can be detected as early as 9 years old
Features
·cynical hostility, characterized by:
·suspiciousness ·resentment ·frequent anger ·antagonism ·distrust of others ·competitiveness ·striving for achievement ·time urgency ·difficulty relaxing ·impatience ·anger
Complications
·Type A is associated with:
·increased systolic BP ·increased heart rate ·increased plasma norepinephrine and epinephrine ·increased plasma cortisol ·reduced occipital alpha activity on EEG ·cynical hostility is a risk factor for coronary heart disease, and MI ·post-MI, Type B personality is more likely to suffer a subsequent event (mechanism unclear)
Management
·behaviours can be changed by:
1.changing environmental demands
2.changing patients responses (cognitive and behavioural) by:
·learning new behaviours ·changing coping styles ·relaxation ·biofeedback
3.changing physiological concomitants
Coping with stress
Stages in coping with stress
1.Assessment
·identify the sources and effects of stress
2.Goal Setting
·list the stressors and stress responses to be addressed
·designate which stressors are and are not changeable
3.Planning
·list the specific steps to be taken to cope with stress
4. Action
·implement coping plans
5.Evaluation
·determine the changes in stressors and stress responses that have occurred as a result of coping methods
6.Adjustment
·alter coping methods to improve results, if necessary
Developing coping strategies
1.Cognitive coping strategies
·cognitive coping strategies can replace catastrophic thinking with thoughts in which the stressors are seen as challenges rather than threats - this process is called cognitive restructuring
2.Emotional coping strategies
·seeking and obtaining social support
·getting advice and feedback
3.Behavioural strategies
·implementing a time-management plan
·making life changes to eliminate stressors
4.Physical strategies
·progressive relaxation training
·exercise
·biofeedback
·meditation
Coping mechanisms
1.concentration only on the current task (denial)
2.empathy (projection)
3.logical analysis (rationalization)
4.objectivity (isolation)
5.playfulness (aggression)
6.substitution of other thoughts (reaction formation)
7.suppression of other feelings (repression)
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