Biases for internal stimuli
The evidence discussed so far has indicated that individuals high in trait anxiety have attentional and interpretive biases for external stimuli, that repressers have opposite attentional and interpretive biases for external stimuli, and that individuals low in trait anxiety do not have cognitive biases for external stimuli. All of these findings are consistent with the predictions of the four-factor theory. However, the theory also predicts that the same pattern of cognitive biases will be present when internal stimuli are considered. Accordingly, there will now be a brief consideration of some of the relevant findings.
Evidence that individuals high in trait or social anxiety have an interpretive bias for their own social behaviour has been obtained in a number of studies. The individuals high in social anxiety rated their overall level of social skill in two social situations as significantly lower than did independent judges. In contrast, those low in social anxiety showed no discrepancy between their own assessment of their level of social skill and the judges’ ratings.Socially anxious individuals’ level of self-reported anxiety was much higher than judges’ ratings of their level of anxiety in two different stressful social situations. However, self-reported and rated anxiety were comparable across all situations for those low in social anxiety.
The repressers showed an opposite interpretive bias for their own behaviour, in that their ratings of their own behavioural anxiety were significantly lower than the judges’ ratings of their behavioural anxiety. In contrast, individuals high in trait anxiety showed an interpretive bias, since they rated their own behavioural anxiety as significantly greater than it appeared to the judges. Evidence relating to opposite interpretive bias for future cognitions was reported by Eysenck and Derakshan (1997). The university students who were the participants in their study were asked to provide information about the negative expectations they had concerning their likely performance in important examinations due to be held a few weeks thereafter. They were also asked to provide the same information with respect to a typical student. One key finding was that repressers had an opposite interpretive bias, in that they had fewer negative expectations about themselves than about a typical student.
This difference reflected an opposite interpretive bias rather than an accurate appraisal,because the actual examination performance of the repressers did not differ from that of other students. The other key finding was that individuals high in trait anxiety showed an interpretive bias, in that they had more negative expectations about themselves than they did about a typical student. This was a genuine interpretive bias, because the actual examination performance of the high-anxious students was comparable to that of the lowanxious and represser groups. It is relatively difficult to assess interpretive bias for one’s own physiological state.
The main reasons are that it is not possible to control an individual’s internal state in more than a very approximate fashion, and it is also hard to assess accurately an individual’s internal physiological state. Preliminary evidence was reported by Derakshan and Eysenck (1997) in a study described above. They measured heart rate while their student participants were giving a public talk, and found that there were no group differences between the groups of repressers, high-anxious, and defensive high-anxious individuals. However, there were substantial group differences in the interpretation of their increased heart rate during the talk when the participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they attributed it to the situation being stressful and threatening versus exciting and challenging. The high-anxious and defensive high-anxious groups attributed their elevated heart rate mainly to the situation being stressful and threatening. In contrast, the repressers argued that their elevated heart rate was mainly attributable to the situation being exciting and challenging. These findings may indicate that the highanxious and defensive high-anxious groups had an interpretive bias for their ownphysiological state, whereas repressers exhibited an opposite interpretive bias for their internal state.
The evidence discussed so far has indicated that individuals high in trait anxiety have attentional and interpretive biases for external stimuli, that repressers have opposite attentional and interpretive biases for external stimuli, and that individuals low in trait anxiety do not have cognitive biases for external stimuli. All of these findings are consistent with the predictions of the four-factor theory. However, the theory also predicts that the same pattern of cognitive biases will be present when internal stimuli are considered. Accordingly, there will now be a brief consideration of some of the relevant findings.
Evidence that individuals high in trait or social anxiety have an interpretive bias for their own social behaviour has been obtained in a number of studies. The individuals high in social anxiety rated their overall level of social skill in two social situations as significantly lower than did independent judges. In contrast, those low in social anxiety showed no discrepancy between their own assessment of their level of social skill and the judges’ ratings.Socially anxious individuals’ level of self-reported anxiety was much higher than judges’ ratings of their level of anxiety in two different stressful social situations. However, self-reported and rated anxiety were comparable across all situations for those low in social anxiety.
The repressers showed an opposite interpretive bias for their own behaviour, in that their ratings of their own behavioural anxiety were significantly lower than the judges’ ratings of their behavioural anxiety. In contrast, individuals high in trait anxiety showed an interpretive bias, since they rated their own behavioural anxiety as significantly greater than it appeared to the judges. Evidence relating to opposite interpretive bias for future cognitions was reported by Eysenck and Derakshan (1997). The university students who were the participants in their study were asked to provide information about the negative expectations they had concerning their likely performance in important examinations due to be held a few weeks thereafter. They were also asked to provide the same information with respect to a typical student. One key finding was that repressers had an opposite interpretive bias, in that they had fewer negative expectations about themselves than about a typical student.
This difference reflected an opposite interpretive bias rather than an accurate appraisal,because the actual examination performance of the repressers did not differ from that of other students. The other key finding was that individuals high in trait anxiety showed an interpretive bias, in that they had more negative expectations about themselves than they did about a typical student. This was a genuine interpretive bias, because the actual examination performance of the high-anxious students was comparable to that of the lowanxious and represser groups. It is relatively difficult to assess interpretive bias for one’s own physiological state.
The main reasons are that it is not possible to control an individual’s internal state in more than a very approximate fashion, and it is also hard to assess accurately an individual’s internal physiological state. Preliminary evidence was reported by Derakshan and Eysenck (1997) in a study described above. They measured heart rate while their student participants were giving a public talk, and found that there were no group differences between the groups of repressers, high-anxious, and defensive high-anxious individuals. However, there were substantial group differences in the interpretation of their increased heart rate during the talk when the participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they attributed it to the situation being stressful and threatening versus exciting and challenging. The high-anxious and defensive high-anxious groups attributed their elevated heart rate mainly to the situation being stressful and threatening. In contrast, the repressers argued that their elevated heart rate was mainly attributable to the situation being exciting and challenging. These findings may indicate that the highanxious and defensive high-anxious groups had an interpretive bias for their ownphysiological state, whereas repressers exhibited an opposite interpretive bias for their internal state.
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