Presynaptic mechanisms
Another important mechanism whereby the release of a neurotransmitter may be altered is by presynaptic inhibition. Initially this mechanism was thought to be restricted to noradrenergic synapses, but it is now known to occur at GABA-ergic, dopaminergic and serotonergic terminals also. In brief, it has been shown that at noradrenergic synapses the release of noradrenaline may be reduced by high concentrations of the transmitter in the synaptic cleft. Conversely, some adrenoceptor antagonists, such as phenoxybenzamine, have been found to enhance the release of the amine. It is now known that the subclass of adrenoceptors responsible for this process of autoinhibition are distinct from the a1 adrenoceptors which are located on blood vessels, on secretory cells, and in the brain. These autoinhibitory receptors, or a2 adrenoceptors, can be identified by the use of specific agonists and antagonists, for example clonidine and yohimbine respectively. Drugs acting as specific agonists or antagonists on a1 receptors, for example the agonist methoxamine and the antagonist prazosin, do not affect noradrenaline release by this mechanism. The inhibitory effect of a2 agonists on noradrenaline release involves a hyperpolarization of the presynaptic membranes by opening potassium ion channels. The reduction in the release of noradrenaline following the administration of an a2 agonist is ultimately due to a reduction in the concentration of free cytosolic calcium, which is an essential component of the mechanism whereby the synaptic vesicles containing noradrenaline fuse to the synaptic membrane before their release.There is evidence that a number of closely related phosphoproteins associated with the synaptic vesicles, called synapsins, are involved in the short-term regulation of neurotransmitter release. These proteins also appear to be involved in the regulation of synapse formation, which allows the nerve network to adapt to long-term passage of nerve impulses. Experimental studies have shown that the release of a transmitter from a nerve terminal can be decreased or increased by a variety of other neurotransmitters. For example, stimulation of 5-HT receptors on noradrenergic terminals can lead to an enhanced release of noradrenaline. While the physiological importance of such a mechanism is unclear, this could be a means whereby drugs could produce some of their effects. Such receptors have been termed heteroceptors. In addition to the physiological process of autoinhibition, another mechanism of presynaptic inhibition has been identified in the peripheral nervous system, although its precise relevance to the brain is unclear. In the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, for example, the axon terminal of a local neuron makes axo-axonal contact with a primary afferent excitatory input, which leads to a reduction in the neurotransmitter released. This is due to the local neuron partly depolarizing the nerve terminal, so that when the axon potential arrives, the change induced is diminished, thereby leading to a smaller quantity of transmitter being released. In the brain, it is possible that GABA can cause presynaptic inhibition in this way.
Another important mechanism whereby the release of a neurotransmitter may be altered is by presynaptic inhibition. Initially this mechanism was thought to be restricted to noradrenergic synapses, but it is now known to occur at GABA-ergic, dopaminergic and serotonergic terminals also. In brief, it has been shown that at noradrenergic synapses the release of noradrenaline may be reduced by high concentrations of the transmitter in the synaptic cleft. Conversely, some adrenoceptor antagonists, such as phenoxybenzamine, have been found to enhance the release of the amine. It is now known that the subclass of adrenoceptors responsible for this process of autoinhibition are distinct from the a1 adrenoceptors which are located on blood vessels, on secretory cells, and in the brain. These autoinhibitory receptors, or a2 adrenoceptors, can be identified by the use of specific agonists and antagonists, for example clonidine and yohimbine respectively. Drugs acting as specific agonists or antagonists on a1 receptors, for example the agonist methoxamine and the antagonist prazosin, do not affect noradrenaline release by this mechanism. The inhibitory effect of a2 agonists on noradrenaline release involves a hyperpolarization of the presynaptic membranes by opening potassium ion channels. The reduction in the release of noradrenaline following the administration of an a2 agonist is ultimately due to a reduction in the concentration of free cytosolic calcium, which is an essential component of the mechanism whereby the synaptic vesicles containing noradrenaline fuse to the synaptic membrane before their release.There is evidence that a number of closely related phosphoproteins associated with the synaptic vesicles, called synapsins, are involved in the short-term regulation of neurotransmitter release. These proteins also appear to be involved in the regulation of synapse formation, which allows the nerve network to adapt to long-term passage of nerve impulses. Experimental studies have shown that the release of a transmitter from a nerve terminal can be decreased or increased by a variety of other neurotransmitters. For example, stimulation of 5-HT receptors on noradrenergic terminals can lead to an enhanced release of noradrenaline. While the physiological importance of such a mechanism is unclear, this could be a means whereby drugs could produce some of their effects. Such receptors have been termed heteroceptors. In addition to the physiological process of autoinhibition, another mechanism of presynaptic inhibition has been identified in the peripheral nervous system, although its precise relevance to the brain is unclear. In the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, for example, the axon terminal of a local neuron makes axo-axonal contact with a primary afferent excitatory input, which leads to a reduction in the neurotransmitter released. This is due to the local neuron partly depolarizing the nerve terminal, so that when the axon potential arrives, the change induced is diminished, thereby leading to a smaller quantity of transmitter being released. In the brain, it is possible that GABA can cause presynaptic inhibition in this way.
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