Following these early beginnings, the study of emotional development was relatively quiescent until the 1980s, when new theories and more sophisticated empirical research began to appear. For example, Harris (e.g. 1989) carried out a series of studies on how children understand emotion, often using stories and asking children to make judgements about the characters’ emotions. Among other results, he found that children of about six cannot imagine people having an emotion without their expressing it, but by the age of ten children understand hidden feelings in others.
A clear theory of emotional development was developed by Izard and Malatesta (1987; Magai [formerly Malatesta] & McFadden, 1995). They suggest that emotion is a system that relates to life-support, and to behavioural and cognitive systems, but develops independently of them. They view emotions as generating much of the motivational force behind behaviour. Izard and Malatesta express their theory with formal postulates about the neurochemistry of emotion, and the expression and experience of emotion. Although they believe (like Bridges) that emotions become differentially associated with internal states very early in life, Magai and Hunziger (1993) suggest that individual emotional development hinges on life’s crises and transitions, such as puberty, marriage or retirement. However, they argue that everything begins with attachment (see below), and if an emotion overwhelms at age 17, it might still overwhelm at 77, despite the process of individual emotional development. In other words, although we might lear to express our emotions in different ways throughout our lifespan, the experience of the emotions remains constant. Moreover, some of the most compelling emotional experiences that many people have are concerned with their social attachments (romantic or otherwise). Lewis is another major theorist of emotional development (e.g. 1992, 1993). He regards emotional development as dependent on maturation, socialisation and cognitive development, through gradual differentiation of emotional states. Lewis argues that we have to be self-aware to truly experience emotion. So before the infant has developed self-awareness, according to Lewis it could have an emotion but would not properly experience it. Like Bridges and Malatesta/Magai, Lewis believes that most emotions have appeared by about the age of three. Lewis argues that distress, interest and pleasure are there from birth. Joy, sadness and disgust, then anger, appear from three to six months, followed by surprise and fear. In the second half-year of life, with self-awareness developing, Lewis argues that the self-conscious emotions of embarrassment, empathy and envy appear. Finally, Lewis states that the self-conscious evaluative emotions of pride, shame and guilt appear. These emotions depend on seeing the self as both subject and object, requiring a theory of mind – the understanding that other people have minds and hence separate viewpoints. In the end, for Lewis, the cornerstones of emotional development are cognition and socialization. From the two theories that we have reviewed above, it should be possible to ask what actually develops during emotional development. The answer takes us back to the five perspectives on emotion described earlier in this chapter. So we develop (a) emotional experience, (b) emotional behaviour and (c) physiological reactions. We also learn to express and recognize emotion in various social situations, depending on personal maturation and cognitive development
A clear theory of emotional development was developed by Izard and Malatesta (1987; Magai [formerly Malatesta] & McFadden, 1995). They suggest that emotion is a system that relates to life-support, and to behavioural and cognitive systems, but develops independently of them. They view emotions as generating much of the motivational force behind behaviour. Izard and Malatesta express their theory with formal postulates about the neurochemistry of emotion, and the expression and experience of emotion. Although they believe (like Bridges) that emotions become differentially associated with internal states very early in life, Magai and Hunziger (1993) suggest that individual emotional development hinges on life’s crises and transitions, such as puberty, marriage or retirement. However, they argue that everything begins with attachment (see below), and if an emotion overwhelms at age 17, it might still overwhelm at 77, despite the process of individual emotional development. In other words, although we might lear to express our emotions in different ways throughout our lifespan, the experience of the emotions remains constant. Moreover, some of the most compelling emotional experiences that many people have are concerned with their social attachments (romantic or otherwise). Lewis is another major theorist of emotional development (e.g. 1992, 1993). He regards emotional development as dependent on maturation, socialisation and cognitive development, through gradual differentiation of emotional states. Lewis argues that we have to be self-aware to truly experience emotion. So before the infant has developed self-awareness, according to Lewis it could have an emotion but would not properly experience it. Like Bridges and Malatesta/Magai, Lewis believes that most emotions have appeared by about the age of three. Lewis argues that distress, interest and pleasure are there from birth. Joy, sadness and disgust, then anger, appear from three to six months, followed by surprise and fear. In the second half-year of life, with self-awareness developing, Lewis argues that the self-conscious emotions of embarrassment, empathy and envy appear. Finally, Lewis states that the self-conscious evaluative emotions of pride, shame and guilt appear. These emotions depend on seeing the self as both subject and object, requiring a theory of mind – the understanding that other people have minds and hence separate viewpoints. In the end, for Lewis, the cornerstones of emotional development are cognition and socialization. From the two theories that we have reviewed above, it should be possible to ask what actually develops during emotional development. The answer takes us back to the five perspectives on emotion described earlier in this chapter. So we develop (a) emotional experience, (b) emotional behaviour and (c) physiological reactions. We also learn to express and recognize emotion in various social situations, depending on personal maturation and cognitive development
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