Skinner box soon replaced Thorndike’s puzzle box in the laboratory study of instrumental learning. In the version used for the rat, the Skinner box consists of a chamber with a lever protruding from one wall and a nearby food cup into which food pellets can be delivered by remote control Pressing the lever operates an electronic switch and automatically results in food delivery. So there is an instrumental contingency between the lever-press (the response) and the food (the effect or outcome). A rat exposed to this contingency presses the lever with increasing frequency. The Skinner box is similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box, but instead of using escape from the box as a reward, the animal stays in the box and the reward is delivered directly to it. This is an example of rewarded, or appetitive, instrumental learning, but the same general techniques can be used to study aversive instrumental learning. There are two basic aversive paradigms, punishment [punishment an aversive event as the consequence of a respo nse to reduce the probability of the response] and avoidance [avoidance instrumental training procedure in which performing a given response brings about the omission of an aversive event that is otherwise scheduled to occur].
Punishment
The event made contingent on the response is aversive. For example, the habit of responding is first acquired. Subsequently, occasional lever-presses produce a brief electric shock through a grid floor fitted to the box. Unsurprisingly, the rate of responding declines. (It is worth adding that, although the effect may not be surprising, it still requires explanation. It often happens in psychology that the basic behavioural facts seem obvious; but when we try to explain them, we realize how little we really understand them.)
Avoidance
A signal occurs from time to time, accompanied by a foot shock. If the rat presses the lever, the shock is cancelled. So there is an instrumental contingency between the response and the omission of a given outcome. By behaving appropriately, the animal can avoid the shocks. In fact, rats are rather poor at avoidance learning when the response required is a lever-press; they respond better when they are required to jump over a hurdle. So the apparatus usually used is a two-compartment box, with a hurdle separating the two parts. Rats readily acquire the habit of jumping the hurdle in response to the warning signal. Training procedures that inflict pain (however slight) on the animal should obviously be employed only for good reason. Studies like this are justified by the insights they have provided into the nature of human anxiety disorders and neuroses.
Punishment
The event made contingent on the response is aversive. For example, the habit of responding is first acquired. Subsequently, occasional lever-presses produce a brief electric shock through a grid floor fitted to the box. Unsurprisingly, the rate of responding declines. (It is worth adding that, although the effect may not be surprising, it still requires explanation. It often happens in psychology that the basic behavioural facts seem obvious; but when we try to explain them, we realize how little we really understand them.)
Avoidance
A signal occurs from time to time, accompanied by a foot shock. If the rat presses the lever, the shock is cancelled. So there is an instrumental contingency between the response and the omission of a given outcome. By behaving appropriately, the animal can avoid the shocks. In fact, rats are rather poor at avoidance learning when the response required is a lever-press; they respond better when they are required to jump over a hurdle. So the apparatus usually used is a two-compartment box, with a hurdle separating the two parts. Rats readily acquire the habit of jumping the hurdle in response to the warning signal. Training procedures that inflict pain (however slight) on the animal should obviously be employed only for good reason. Studies like this are justified by the insights they have provided into the nature of human anxiety disorders and neuroses.
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